以色列机场的安检果然是非常恐怖， 还没check in就先要检查一遍。 安检人员可能看我的箱子比较小，
然后在以色列住了10多天，得着我一个劲的问， 还好顺利通过第一关。 中间去McDonalds大叔那吃了一个套餐， 那汉堡有国内两个那么大， 结果最后薯条没吃完。 实在是吃撑了。 发现以色列这边菜普遍都是很大分量，怪不得不怎么吃米饭一样不会饿。
第二道关就是去登机口之前的一道安检， 这里就更严了， 把所有东西都打开检查，鞋子只要过安检门会响也要脱了重新去走。 还好咱也没想着带什么违禁品。 还是顺利过关了。
就这样 折腾到登机口的时候差不多可以登机了， 前面安检前前后后花了有一个半小时。
飞机起飞后发现回来比去的时候快一个半小时， 而且到后来发现路线是一样的。 不过回来基本在950km/h以上， 去的时候很长一段时间都是800左右。 而且回来的时间不错， 晚上9：00, 上飞机看了一部电影， 就睡觉了。 一觉醒来发现已经飞了一半了， 吃了点东西。 继续睡了两个多小时， 空姐开始发早餐。吃了点东西就一路玩小游戏， 很快到香港。 回来比去的时候真是舒服很多。
从机场一路问出来， 找到到深圳湾的车， 直接坐车回到深圳湾打的回家。 终于可以说中文了。
洗个澡休息。
2008年12月10日星期三
以色列 day 11
今天是在以色列的最后一天了， 早上提早10分钟起来， 收拾好东西就去吃早餐。 今天餐厅人特多， 找了半天找到个位置坐下， 吃了点面包和这边的酸奶. 上楼拿行李check out， check out的时候发现要付137NIS, 一问是洗衣服的钱， 我一算不对啊， 才花30多， 结果人家跟我说那是按美金算的， 我靠， 洗了三次衣服花了200多rmb.
不管了， 付钱拿票（应该能报）. 打个的士到公司。 今天上班还是差不多， 把昨天的bug 改了下， 然后在一个新平台上测了下昨天做的功能。 还ok， 不过后来自己在做code review的时候发现还是有小bug， 真是晕了。 太粗心， 赶紧改了又给boss发了一份过去。
现在就等着去机场了， 安检又是超严的。
See you in China. -_-
不管了， 付钱拿票（应该能报）. 打个的士到公司。 今天上班还是差不多， 把昨天的bug 改了下， 然后在一个新平台上测了下昨天做的功能。 还ok， 不过后来自己在做code review的时候发现还是有小bug， 真是晕了。 太粗心， 赶紧改了又给boss发了一份过去。
现在就等着去机场了， 安检又是超严的。
See you in China. -_-
以色列 day 10
今天一直下雨， 上班主要还是做小task.
明天就回国了， 今天晚上boss请吃饭， 去了这边的dimsum, 一看中餐 日系的都有， 也搞不清楚到底是哪的。
叫了个套餐， 全是各式的小吃， 一共上了13道， 刚好吃饱。 自己打车回酒店， 收拾好东西。
酒店的网络又不行了， 看了会电视直接睡觉
明天就回国了， 今天晚上boss请吃饭， 去了这边的dimsum, 一看中餐 日系的都有， 也搞不清楚到底是哪的。
叫了个套餐， 全是各式的小吃， 一共上了13道， 刚好吃饱。 自己打车回酒店， 收拾好东西。
酒店的网络又不行了， 看了会电视直接睡觉
2008年12月9日星期二
以色列行 day 9
还有三天就可以回国了， 今天主要是boss的boss给介绍sip相关的一些知识， 另外就是做dynamic payload type的task.
在经过上午的sip知识介绍后， 对task该怎么实现有了把握， 下午就是一直看代码，最后改代码。 测试
一切ok。
今天7点多就回了， 找地方吃了晚饭， 今天要了ribs，烤肋排， 分量真是足， 不过价格也很足， 加一瓶雪碧一共106NIS，味道确实是很不错。
回来的路上居然下起大雨， 一路狂奔回来的.
都湿了， 赶紧洗澡~
在经过上午的sip知识介绍后， 对task该怎么实现有了把握， 下午就是一直看代码，最后改代码。 测试
一切ok。
今天7点多就回了， 找地方吃了晚饭， 今天要了ribs，烤肋排， 分量真是足， 不过价格也很足， 加一瓶雪碧一共106NIS，味道确实是很不错。
回来的路上居然下起大雨， 一路狂奔回来的.
都湿了， 赶紧洗澡~
2008年12月8日星期一
以色列行 day 8
周日， 在这边是新的一周的开始了， 忘了定闹钟， 也没有morning call居然自己在7：15的时候醒了。
今天也一样蛮早就到了公司， 乘上班前的一点时间把周末拍的照片传到google相册和lp大人分享：）
今天和部门另一个领导见面聊了聊。大概也是介绍了下我们这个部门整个的工作这些。
今天的新任务和rtp sip协议有关了， 没昨天那没快了。 今天主要在看协议的内容和一些代码。
晚上去海边的一个酒吧吃， 叫了个三明治， 分量实在是太大了， 没吃完....
而且味道也还是汉堡更好点， 没那么多怪怪的之士在里面。 明天还是去找别的东西吃。
今天回到酒店就9点多了， 吃完饭已经10点， 一会就要睡了， 这不成养膘了。。。。。
还好周三就回国了.
今天也一样蛮早就到了公司， 乘上班前的一点时间把周末拍的照片传到google相册和lp大人分享：）
今天和部门另一个领导见面聊了聊。大概也是介绍了下我们这个部门整个的工作这些。
今天的新任务和rtp sip协议有关了， 没昨天那没快了。 今天主要在看协议的内容和一些代码。
晚上去海边的一个酒吧吃， 叫了个三明治， 分量实在是太大了， 没吃完....
而且味道也还是汉堡更好点， 没那么多怪怪的之士在里面。 明天还是去找别的东西吃。
今天回到酒店就9点多了， 吃完饭已经10点， 一会就要睡了， 这不成养膘了。。。。。
还好周三就回国了.
2008年12月7日星期日
以色列行 day 7
今天是周六， 特拉维夫除了餐厅， 大多数的店都不开门。 早上吃完早餐准备出去逛， 正好碰到酒店另一个同胞， 于是打算一起去雅法走走。我住的酒店在特拉维夫港附近， 属于特拉维夫的北部， 而雅法正好在特拉维夫的南部， 雅法是一个4000多年历史的港口城市。
虽然穿着皮鞋， 我还是选择下到海滩 沿着地中海的还岸线往雅法进发， 在特拉维夫港看雅法， 像一个小山头。 一路上有很多在做运动的本地人， 跑步、骑车以及打沙排的都有， 当然还有很躺在沙滩上休息的。 给人的感觉非常宁静和平和。
由于这次是来工作， 所以都没做什么休闲准备。 这里的太阳还是相当大， 11点已经被照的睁不开眼睛了。 不过今天还好是两个人， 一路上拍了很多照片， 不用像昨天一样 由于自己一个人， 老麻烦别人帮忙也不好。
途中在一个coffe shop休息 吃了点小吃。 继续朝雅法进发， 最终花了两个小时走到了雅法， 在雅法 看到了jaffa museum 和 jaffa theatre很老的建筑， 不过今天没开门， 只能看看外景。
之后我们去教堂看了一下， 正好里面有人在做礼拜。 就看了一下。 之后下到jaffa port. 花20NIS做了一把游轮， 虽然走的不算太远， 快到特拉维夫港掉头， 不过也算游了一把地中海， 没白来了。 而且在船上看岸边，那是非常的震撼， 而另一把看天海一线。 That's great!!! 真是有种天高任鸟飞，海阔任鱼游之感。
虽然穿着皮鞋， 我还是选择下到海滩 沿着地中海的还岸线往雅法进发， 在特拉维夫港看雅法， 像一个小山头。 一路上有很多在做运动的本地人， 跑步、骑车以及打沙排的都有， 当然还有很躺在沙滩上休息的。 给人的感觉非常宁静和平和。
由于这次是来工作， 所以都没做什么休闲准备。 这里的太阳还是相当大， 11点已经被照的睁不开眼睛了。 不过今天还好是两个人， 一路上拍了很多照片， 不用像昨天一样 由于自己一个人， 老麻烦别人帮忙也不好。
途中在一个coffe shop休息 吃了点小吃。 继续朝雅法进发， 最终花了两个小时走到了雅法， 在雅法 看到了jaffa museum 和 jaffa theatre很老的建筑， 不过今天没开门， 只能看看外景。
之后我们去教堂看了一下， 正好里面有人在做礼拜。 就看了一下。 之后下到jaffa port. 花20NIS做了一把游轮， 虽然走的不算太远， 快到特拉维夫港掉头， 不过也算游了一把地中海， 没白来了。 而且在船上看岸边，那是非常的震撼， 而另一把看天海一线。 That's great!!! 真是有种天高任鸟飞，海阔任鱼游之感。
2008年12月6日星期六
以色列行 day 6 -- 圣城 耶路撒冷
早上7：15 旅游车准时到酒店接人， 上车跟着一路绕着又接了许多人， 然后来到车站， 换乘旅游大巴去耶路撒冷。 耶路撒冷离特拉维夫其实很近， 感觉出了城上高速， 不到40分钟就到了。 一到耶路撒冷， 就收到中国移动的短信， 祝您巴勒斯坦之旅愉快啥的...
到了耶路撒冷看到和特拉维夫有很大的不同， 路上经常能看到， 穿黑色大褂， 带黑色礼帽的犹太人.据说这些都是很虔诚的教徒。
我们今天主要的行程是在耶路撒冷老城， 当然首先是上一个制高点， 可以俯瞰老城 以及著名的圣殿山以及山上的金顶清真市， 可惜我们的行程没有包括清真市.
拷点资料：）
耶路撒冷市 (Jerusalem) 位于巴勒斯坦中部犹地亚山的四座山丘上，是一座举世闻名的历史古城，距今已有５０００多年的历史。四周群山环抱，面积１５８平方公里，由东部旧城和西部新城组成。海拔８３５米，人口６３．４万（２０００年）。
耶路撒冷旧城是一座宗教圣城，是犹太教、伊斯兰教和基督教世界三大宗教发源地，三教都把耶路撒冷视为自己的圣地。宗教和传统、历史和神学以及神圣的处所和祈祷的房屋，使耶路撒冷成为备受犹太教徒、基督教徒和穆斯林崇敬的神圣城市。
耶路撒冷所在地最早叫“耶布斯”，这是因为很早以前阿拉伯迦南人的一个名叫“耶布斯”的部落从阿拉伯半岛迁徙到这里定居下来，修建村庄，构筑城堡，并以部落的名字命名此地。后来，迦南人又在这里修建城市，并定名为“尤罗萨利姆”。大约在公元前一千年左右，犹太王国创始人大卫征服了这个地方，将它作为犹太王国的都城，继续沿用“尤罗萨利姆”的名称，为使它希伯莱化，称为“尤罗萨拉姆”。
中文以此译为“耶路撒冷”，意为“和平之城”。阿拉伯人称该城为“古德斯”，即“圣城”。
确实是在山上， 大多数的路都有很大的坡度， 特别是进了老城以后。 老城主要就是去教堂， 当然一路走过去， 沿途先吃了午饭， 一个很一般的汉堡10美金。 之后到了教堂， 发现了非常多教徒。 我对这里发生的历史不甚了解，导游的英语我也听不太懂， 一路只能是边看 边捏相机。 不过后来到了哭墙还是知道了， 非常多的人， 真的是趴在墙上哭泣。
耶路撒冷长期以来是巴勒斯坦人和以色列人聚居的城市。相传公元前１０世纪，大卫的儿子所罗门继位，在耶路撒冷城内的锡安山上修建了一座犹太教圣殿，是古犹太人进行宗教和政治活动的中心，于是犹太教就把耶路撒冷作为圣地。 后来在圣殿废墟上筑起一道城墙，犹太人称为“哭墙”，成为当今犹太教最重要的崇拜物。
耶路撒冷老城始建以来，已经重建和修复过１８次之多。公元前１０４９年，曾为大卫王统治下的古以色列王国老城。公元前５８６年，新巴比伦（今伊拉克）国王尼布甲尼撒二世攻陷此城，把它夷为平地。公元前５３２年，又为波斯大琉士王侵占。公元前４世纪后，耶路撒冷相继附属于马其顿、托勒密、塞琉古诸王国。公元前６３年罗马攻占耶路撒冷时，他们驱逐了城内的犹太人。罗马人在巴勒斯坦对犹太人的暴政，引起了四次大规模的起义，罗马人进行了血腥镇压，屠杀了一百多万犹太人，并有大批犹太人被掠往欧洲，沦为奴隶。劫后余生的犹太人纷纷外逃，主要去向是现今的英、法、意、德等地区，后来又大批流向俄国、东欧、北美等，从此开始了犹太人悲惨的流散史。公元６３６年，阿拉伯人打败了罗马人，此后，耶路撒冷长期处于穆斯林统治之下。
犹太教的哭墙
１１世纪末，罗马教皇和欧洲的君主们以“收复圣城”的名义，多次发动十字军东征，１０９９年十字军攻占耶路撒冷，随后在此建立“耶路撒冷王国”，延续近一个世纪。１１８７年，阿拉伯的苏丹萨拉丁在巴勒斯坦北部的赫淀一役，大败十字军，收复了耶路撒冷。从
１５１７年到第一次世界大战前，耶路撒冷一直处于奥斯曼帝国统治之下。
耶路撒冷南部１７公里的伯利恒镇附近，有一个名叫马赫德的山洞，据说耶稣就降生在这个山洞里，现在那里建有马赫德教堂。耶稣年轻时曾在耶路撒冷求学，后又在这里布道，自称基督（即救世主），后被犹太当局钉死在城外的十字架上，并埋葬在那里。传说耶稣死后3天从墓中复活，４０天后升天。
公元３３５年，古罗马皇帝君士坦丁一世的母亲希拉娜太后巡游到耶路撒冷，在耶稣的墓地上修建了一座复活教堂，又称圣墓教堂，因此基督教都把耶路撒冷奉为圣地。
俯瞰圣殿山上的金顶清真寺
圣殿山的南墙
公元７世纪初，伊斯兰教先知穆罕默德在阿拉伯半岛传教，在麦加城受到当地贵族的反对。一天夜里，他从梦中被唤醒，乘骑由天使送来的一匹有女人头的银灰色牝马，从麦加来到耶路撒冷，在这里踩在一块圣石上，飞上九重天，在直接受到上天启示后，当夜又返回麦加城。这就是伊斯兰教中有名的“夜行和登宵”，是穆斯林的重要教义之一。由于这夜游神话，耶路撒冷也就成了伊斯兰教仅次于麦加、麦地纳的第三圣地。
正是由于耶路撒冷是三大宗教圣地，为了争夺圣地，自古以来，在这里不知发生过多少次残酷的征战。耶路撒冷先后１８次被夷为平地，但每次之后都得到复兴，根本原因就在于这是一座世界公认的宗教圣地。有人说，耶路撒冷是世界上少见的屡遭破坏但又备受崇敬的一座美丽城市。１８６０年以前，耶路撒冷有城墙，城区分４个居民区犹太居民区、穆斯林居民区、亚美尼亚和基督教居民区。那时，已占该城人口多数的犹太人，开始在城墙外建立新的居民区，形成了现代耶路撒冷的核心。从一个小乡镇转变为一个繁荣的大都市，形成许多新的居民区，每一个居民区都反映了那里特定聚居群体的特性。
１９１７年盟军占领耶路撒冷。１９２２年起由英国“托管”。１９４７年１１月联合国大会通过了关于巴勒斯坦分治的第１８１８号决议，规定耶路撒冷由联合国管理。１９４８年５月第一次中东战争爆发后，以色列旋即占领了耶路撒冷西区，并在１９５０年宣布耶路撒冷为首都。耶路撒冷城东区遂由约旦控制，１９６７年第三次中东战争时，以色列进而占领全城。１９８０年７月以色列议会通过法案，将耶路撒冷定为以色列“永恒和不可分割的”首都。此举引起了阿拉伯世界和国际舆论的强烈反应。１９８８年１１月，巴勒斯坦全国委员会第１９次特别会议通过《独立宣言》，宣布耶路撒冷为新成立的巴勒斯坦国首都。
我们最后一段行程就是圣殿山， 可惜没有去山顶的清真市， 不过看到了哭墙了。
今天途中还丢了两个游客 汗了， 还好后来他们自己联系到旅游公司， 然后联系上导游。 一切都顺利。
下午5点多 回到特拉维夫， 真是两个世界的感觉， 在耶路撒冷可以感觉到很古朴的那种气氛， 而特拉维夫则是根据现代化气息的一个城市。
晚餐随便找了家coffee bar搞定， 早早休息。
到了耶路撒冷看到和特拉维夫有很大的不同， 路上经常能看到， 穿黑色大褂， 带黑色礼帽的犹太人.据说这些都是很虔诚的教徒。
我们今天主要的行程是在耶路撒冷老城， 当然首先是上一个制高点， 可以俯瞰老城 以及著名的圣殿山以及山上的金顶清真市， 可惜我们的行程没有包括清真市.
拷点资料：）
耶路撒冷市 (Jerusalem) 位于巴勒斯坦中部犹地亚山的四座山丘上，是一座举世闻名的历史古城，距今已有５０００多年的历史。四周群山环抱，面积１５８平方公里，由东部旧城和西部新城组成。海拔８３５米，人口６３．４万（２０００年）。
耶路撒冷旧城是一座宗教圣城，是犹太教、伊斯兰教和基督教世界三大宗教发源地，三教都把耶路撒冷视为自己的圣地。宗教和传统、历史和神学以及神圣的处所和祈祷的房屋，使耶路撒冷成为备受犹太教徒、基督教徒和穆斯林崇敬的神圣城市。
耶路撒冷所在地最早叫“耶布斯”，这是因为很早以前阿拉伯迦南人的一个名叫“耶布斯”的部落从阿拉伯半岛迁徙到这里定居下来，修建村庄，构筑城堡，并以部落的名字命名此地。后来，迦南人又在这里修建城市，并定名为“尤罗萨利姆”。大约在公元前一千年左右，犹太王国创始人大卫征服了这个地方，将它作为犹太王国的都城，继续沿用“尤罗萨利姆”的名称，为使它希伯莱化，称为“尤罗萨拉姆”。
中文以此译为“耶路撒冷”，意为“和平之城”。阿拉伯人称该城为“古德斯”，即“圣城”。
确实是在山上， 大多数的路都有很大的坡度， 特别是进了老城以后。 老城主要就是去教堂， 当然一路走过去， 沿途先吃了午饭， 一个很一般的汉堡10美金。 之后到了教堂， 发现了非常多教徒。 我对这里发生的历史不甚了解，导游的英语我也听不太懂， 一路只能是边看 边捏相机。 不过后来到了哭墙还是知道了， 非常多的人， 真的是趴在墙上哭泣。
耶路撒冷长期以来是巴勒斯坦人和以色列人聚居的城市。相传公元前１０世纪，大卫的儿子所罗门继位，在耶路撒冷城内的锡安山上修建了一座犹太教圣殿，是古犹太人进行宗教和政治活动的中心，于是犹太教就把耶路撒冷作为圣地。 后来在圣殿废墟上筑起一道城墙，犹太人称为“哭墙”，成为当今犹太教最重要的崇拜物。
耶路撒冷老城始建以来，已经重建和修复过１８次之多。公元前１０４９年，曾为大卫王统治下的古以色列王国老城。公元前５８６年，新巴比伦（今伊拉克）国王尼布甲尼撒二世攻陷此城，把它夷为平地。公元前５３２年，又为波斯大琉士王侵占。公元前４世纪后，耶路撒冷相继附属于马其顿、托勒密、塞琉古诸王国。公元前６３年罗马攻占耶路撒冷时，他们驱逐了城内的犹太人。罗马人在巴勒斯坦对犹太人的暴政，引起了四次大规模的起义，罗马人进行了血腥镇压，屠杀了一百多万犹太人，并有大批犹太人被掠往欧洲，沦为奴隶。劫后余生的犹太人纷纷外逃，主要去向是现今的英、法、意、德等地区，后来又大批流向俄国、东欧、北美等，从此开始了犹太人悲惨的流散史。公元６３６年，阿拉伯人打败了罗马人，此后，耶路撒冷长期处于穆斯林统治之下。
犹太教的哭墙
１１世纪末，罗马教皇和欧洲的君主们以“收复圣城”的名义，多次发动十字军东征，１０９９年十字军攻占耶路撒冷，随后在此建立“耶路撒冷王国”，延续近一个世纪。１１８７年，阿拉伯的苏丹萨拉丁在巴勒斯坦北部的赫淀一役，大败十字军，收复了耶路撒冷。从
１５１７年到第一次世界大战前，耶路撒冷一直处于奥斯曼帝国统治之下。
耶路撒冷南部１７公里的伯利恒镇附近，有一个名叫马赫德的山洞，据说耶稣就降生在这个山洞里，现在那里建有马赫德教堂。耶稣年轻时曾在耶路撒冷求学，后又在这里布道，自称基督（即救世主），后被犹太当局钉死在城外的十字架上，并埋葬在那里。传说耶稣死后3天从墓中复活，４０天后升天。
公元３３５年，古罗马皇帝君士坦丁一世的母亲希拉娜太后巡游到耶路撒冷，在耶稣的墓地上修建了一座复活教堂，又称圣墓教堂，因此基督教都把耶路撒冷奉为圣地。
俯瞰圣殿山上的金顶清真寺
圣殿山的南墙
公元７世纪初，伊斯兰教先知穆罕默德在阿拉伯半岛传教，在麦加城受到当地贵族的反对。一天夜里，他从梦中被唤醒，乘骑由天使送来的一匹有女人头的银灰色牝马，从麦加来到耶路撒冷，在这里踩在一块圣石上，飞上九重天，在直接受到上天启示后，当夜又返回麦加城。这就是伊斯兰教中有名的“夜行和登宵”，是穆斯林的重要教义之一。由于这夜游神话，耶路撒冷也就成了伊斯兰教仅次于麦加、麦地纳的第三圣地。
正是由于耶路撒冷是三大宗教圣地，为了争夺圣地，自古以来，在这里不知发生过多少次残酷的征战。耶路撒冷先后１８次被夷为平地，但每次之后都得到复兴，根本原因就在于这是一座世界公认的宗教圣地。有人说，耶路撒冷是世界上少见的屡遭破坏但又备受崇敬的一座美丽城市。１８６０年以前，耶路撒冷有城墙，城区分４个居民区犹太居民区、穆斯林居民区、亚美尼亚和基督教居民区。那时，已占该城人口多数的犹太人，开始在城墙外建立新的居民区，形成了现代耶路撒冷的核心。从一个小乡镇转变为一个繁荣的大都市，形成许多新的居民区，每一个居民区都反映了那里特定聚居群体的特性。
１９１７年盟军占领耶路撒冷。１９２２年起由英国“托管”。１９４７年１１月联合国大会通过了关于巴勒斯坦分治的第１８１８号决议，规定耶路撒冷由联合国管理。１９４８年５月第一次中东战争爆发后，以色列旋即占领了耶路撒冷西区，并在１９５０年宣布耶路撒冷为首都。耶路撒冷城东区遂由约旦控制，１９６７年第三次中东战争时，以色列进而占领全城。１９８０年７月以色列议会通过法案，将耶路撒冷定为以色列“永恒和不可分割的”首都。此举引起了阿拉伯世界和国际舆论的强烈反应。１９８８年１１月，巴勒斯坦全国委员会第１９次特别会议通过《独立宣言》，宣布耶路撒冷为新成立的巴勒斯坦国首都。
我们最后一段行程就是圣殿山， 可惜没有去山顶的清真市， 不过看到了哭墙了。
今天途中还丢了两个游客 汗了， 还好后来他们自己联系到旅游公司， 然后联系上导游。 一切都顺利。
下午5点多 回到特拉维夫， 真是两个世界的感觉， 在耶路撒冷可以感觉到很古朴的那种气氛， 而特拉维夫则是根据现代化气息的一个城市。
晚餐随便找了家coffee bar搞定， 早早休息。
2008年12月5日星期五
以色列行 day 5
今天周四， 在以色列来说相当于我们的周五了， 明天就可以休息。
今天主要搞定一个客户提交的Bug, 还真是隐蔽的很， 打开一个选项就会有bug， 然后实际bug和这选项
没有任何关系， 而是在下层一个被调用的函数里， 还好 跟了半天还是跟到了。
晚上8点后 公司给叫了车回酒店， 之前还吃了点公司叫的披萨， 这边每天过了8点就有披萨可以吃。加班不会
饿着。吃完就下楼等车， 这次来的司机居然还是上次那位。一路小憩回到酒店。
回到了酒店还是要找吃的去， 根据的士司机介绍的， 酒店附近有一家中餐馆， 不过根据前几天的了解， 对
那不报很大希望。 不过还是去尝尝， 到那发现， 老板果然是泰国人， 叫了个Pork with green pepper,
说白了就是青椒炒肉， 相当一般。 还很贵。 看来下次还是吃汉堡啥的算了。
这酒店的破网络经常挂掉， 而且一挂要老半天。
明天要去耶路撒冷， 今天早点睡。 和前台定了个6点45的Morning call, 睡觉.
今天主要搞定一个客户提交的Bug, 还真是隐蔽的很， 打开一个选项就会有bug， 然后实际bug和这选项
没有任何关系， 而是在下层一个被调用的函数里， 还好 跟了半天还是跟到了。
晚上8点后 公司给叫了车回酒店， 之前还吃了点公司叫的披萨， 这边每天过了8点就有披萨可以吃。加班不会
饿着。吃完就下楼等车， 这次来的司机居然还是上次那位。一路小憩回到酒店。
回到了酒店还是要找吃的去， 根据的士司机介绍的， 酒店附近有一家中餐馆， 不过根据前几天的了解， 对
那不报很大希望。 不过还是去尝尝， 到那发现， 老板果然是泰国人， 叫了个Pork with green pepper,
说白了就是青椒炒肉， 相当一般。 还很贵。 看来下次还是吃汉堡啥的算了。
这酒店的破网络经常挂掉， 而且一挂要老半天。
明天要去耶路撒冷， 今天早点睡。 和前台定了个6点45的Morning call, 睡觉.
2008年12月4日星期四
以色列行 day 4
到以色列的第四天了， 每天还是6点多就醒了。
今天早上8点准时出发去公司， 比较顺利， 一路都没有堵车， 结果8:30多点就到公司了， Boss他们都还
还没来。
今天是FAE经理给我培训， 主要介绍我们现在的产品特点等信息。明天还要深入的介绍其中一个产品的信息，
包括设计。
下午由于培训的人有事， 所以我把昨天写的程序调了， 调试过程中发现， 昨天的想法是完全正确的， 不过
实际实现的时候有些地方没写好。 改了几道才ok。 发给了Boss, 还给Boss讲了一遍处理思路。
然后把另一个小Task也做了， 很简单的一个改动。
对了， 今天中午吃的是外卖， 还不错， 米饭， 烤鸡块（烧烤来的）.
晚上是Boss请吃饭， FAE经理一家还有Boss的GF都来了， 来到号称是Tel aviv最好的日本餐馆。结果老板是个泰国人， 很不地道啊。
吃的还好， 比以色列当地的实物容易适应， 一路吃一路聊， 就是英语不够用， 很多时候光手在比划， 就
是不知道该怎么说。 吃完晚饭还吃了号称这里最好的冰激凌， 确实不错， 就是冰了点。
回到酒店已经快11点了， 赶紧睡觉.
今天早上8点准时出发去公司， 比较顺利， 一路都没有堵车， 结果8:30多点就到公司了， Boss他们都还
还没来。
今天是FAE经理给我培训， 主要介绍我们现在的产品特点等信息。明天还要深入的介绍其中一个产品的信息，
包括设计。
下午由于培训的人有事， 所以我把昨天写的程序调了， 调试过程中发现， 昨天的想法是完全正确的， 不过
实际实现的时候有些地方没写好。 改了几道才ok。 发给了Boss, 还给Boss讲了一遍处理思路。
然后把另一个小Task也做了， 很简单的一个改动。
对了， 今天中午吃的是外卖， 还不错， 米饭， 烤鸡块（烧烤来的）.
晚上是Boss请吃饭， FAE经理一家还有Boss的GF都来了， 来到号称是Tel aviv最好的日本餐馆。结果老板是个泰国人， 很不地道啊。
吃的还好， 比以色列当地的实物容易适应， 一路吃一路聊， 就是英语不够用， 很多时候光手在比划， 就
是不知道该怎么说。 吃完晚饭还吃了号称这里最好的冰激凌， 确实不错， 就是冰了点。
回到酒店已经快11点了， 赶紧睡觉.
2008年12月3日星期三
以色列行 day 3
今天其实是工作的第二天， 早上起来下楼去吃早餐， 还是老样子， 面包、奶茶、咖啡、鸡蛋 等等， 有点吃不惯了。 草草的吃了一点就回到楼上。 赶紧上qq和lp视频了一会， 不过只有我这有摄像头。 国内现在
是快14：00的样子， 马上我也就要去公司了。 和lp 说了再见后我也就出发了。
今天自己到楼下去等的士。 结果是的士出奇的少， 等了有10几分钟， 才来一个的士。 结果上了车， 司机
说他有私事要忙， 可以把我带到前面去由他同事载我， 还好没耽搁多久。
昨天说了， 特拉维夫这里很多的士司机都是上了年纪的人， 今天碰到的两个司机也都是。 一路上和司机用鸟语一阵猛侃， 这为司机居然在30年前来过中国。 他说中国很美， 人很淳朴， 也很穷。 30年前的中国，
我还没见过呢。
今天不太好运， 最后一段路全程堵车。 结果到公司都9点10分了。 和司机约好， 后面几天每天8：00来酒店接我。 这下不用再等了。
今天主要任务还是培训， 上午是Boss给讲我负责的产品所有平台以及程序结构等。 还好这些在国内就简单培训过，而且这段时间也是做这方面的东西。 听起来不吃力。
下午是另外一个同事给介绍另一个系列的DSP以及SoC. 这个听的吃力一点， 不过把资料都要到了。 自己多看看，问题也不大。
剩下的时间就是做Task, 把boss给的task编的七七八八， 因为是个新平台， 所以还要安装开发环境等。 没全搞完， 就下班了。
今天boss请吃饭， 带我到一家据说在Tel aviv排的上的Restaurant, 拿着菜单， 就认识hamburger了。
结果就点他了， 外带了一份potato fires. 虽然没米饭， 不过这吃的还真是撑了。
经过这两天， 感觉听同事说英语顺畅多了， 基本可以听懂。 只是自己说的比较差， 词汇少，很多东西想说
，结果表达不出来。 汗， 不过也算有个努力的方向。
对了, Boss给安排了周五去jerusalem的one day tour, hoho。 这边周五就是周末啦
是快14：00的样子， 马上我也就要去公司了。 和lp 说了再见后我也就出发了。
今天自己到楼下去等的士。 结果是的士出奇的少， 等了有10几分钟， 才来一个的士。 结果上了车， 司机
说他有私事要忙， 可以把我带到前面去由他同事载我， 还好没耽搁多久。
昨天说了， 特拉维夫这里很多的士司机都是上了年纪的人， 今天碰到的两个司机也都是。 一路上和司机用鸟语一阵猛侃， 这为司机居然在30年前来过中国。 他说中国很美， 人很淳朴， 也很穷。 30年前的中国，
我还没见过呢。
今天不太好运， 最后一段路全程堵车。 结果到公司都9点10分了。 和司机约好， 后面几天每天8：00来酒店接我。 这下不用再等了。
今天主要任务还是培训， 上午是Boss给讲我负责的产品所有平台以及程序结构等。 还好这些在国内就简单培训过，而且这段时间也是做这方面的东西。 听起来不吃力。
下午是另外一个同事给介绍另一个系列的DSP以及SoC. 这个听的吃力一点， 不过把资料都要到了。 自己多看看，问题也不大。
剩下的时间就是做Task, 把boss给的task编的七七八八， 因为是个新平台， 所以还要安装开发环境等。 没全搞完， 就下班了。
今天boss请吃饭， 带我到一家据说在Tel aviv排的上的Restaurant, 拿着菜单， 就认识hamburger了。
结果就点他了， 外带了一份potato fires. 虽然没米饭， 不过这吃的还真是撑了。
经过这两天， 感觉听同事说英语顺畅多了， 基本可以听懂。 只是自己说的比较差， 词汇少，很多东西想说
，结果表达不出来。 汗， 不过也算有个努力的方向。
对了, Boss给安排了周五去jerusalem的one day tour, hoho。 这边周五就是周末啦
2008年12月2日星期二
以色列行 day 2
由于时差没倒过来， 今天早上六点多就醒来了， 实在是睡不着了。 于是去餐厅先解决了早饭。 自助的， 不过适合自己吃的也没啥， 吃了个白煮蛋， 蛋糕还有自己冲了杯奶茶。
之后找前台问了下附近的商店， 去买牙膏和牙刷去了。 习惯了国内的酒店， 什么都没带就来了， 结果这地方什么都不提供。找到了附近的AM PM超市， 24小时的。 其实很小， 很国内很多私人的小超市很像， 小小的。
一支75ml的高露洁加一个高露洁牙刷 合计37NIS， 换成人民币超过60块了， 这地方的物价还真不是一般的高。
回酒店磨磨蹭蹭到8点后， 出门叫了个的士就奔公司去了， 司机是个老人， 发现以色列有很多老人开的士。
到公司共花了139NIS， 照这花法 带的钱可能不够了。
到前台说明来意， 用护照换了个Vistor的牌子， 前台然后帮忙打电话给我的Boss， 还好已经来了。 过了没两分钟， 就见到了传说中的Boss, 有形。
今天一天就是主要安排的就是公司培训，当然先和部门内的同事一一认识了一下。 不过记不住， 感觉老外都长的差不多。 培训到下午的时候就特别困了， 老想睡觉。
晚上下班回酒店， 公司给叫了出租车， 不用自己给钱， 担心钱不够花的问题没了 hoho!
吃了饭 洗完澡 睡觉!
之后找前台问了下附近的商店， 去买牙膏和牙刷去了。 习惯了国内的酒店， 什么都没带就来了， 结果这地方什么都不提供。找到了附近的AM PM超市， 24小时的。 其实很小， 很国内很多私人的小超市很像， 小小的。
一支75ml的高露洁加一个高露洁牙刷 合计37NIS， 换成人民币超过60块了， 这地方的物价还真不是一般的高。
回酒店磨磨蹭蹭到8点后， 出门叫了个的士就奔公司去了， 司机是个老人， 发现以色列有很多老人开的士。
到公司共花了139NIS， 照这花法 带的钱可能不够了。
到前台说明来意， 用护照换了个Vistor的牌子， 前台然后帮忙打电话给我的Boss， 还好已经来了。 过了没两分钟， 就见到了传说中的Boss, 有形。
今天一天就是主要安排的就是公司培训，当然先和部门内的同事一一认识了一下。 不过记不住， 感觉老外都长的差不多。 培训到下午的时候就特别困了， 老想睡觉。
晚上下班回酒店， 公司给叫了出租车， 不用自己给钱， 担心钱不够花的问题没了 hoho!
吃了饭 洗完澡 睡觉!
2008年12月1日星期一
以色列行 day 1
根据公司的安排， 从11月30号到12月10号， 我将参加总部的培训。 地点Tel aviv yafo.
昨天早上8点就起床了， 吃了lp给我做的面条， 9点钟出门 奔赴香港机场。
下楼直接上的士来到深圳湾口岸， 第一次来到传说中的口岸， 人不是很多。 来到bus售票点买了直通香港机场的票， 周末150， 7人坐的小车。 贵是真贵。 9：30车来， 一共就四个乘客。 怪不得贵。
坐这个车过关不用下车， 司机一路搞定两个关口， 上高速直奔香港机场。 还是有点距离的， 路上还看到一个摩托英豪在高速上飚的飞快， 香港还是比较人性 摩托没有禁掉。 到机场的时候才10点半， 除了路上等待花的时间， 其实到机场还是很快的。
由于是下午15：50的飞机， 所以还要等， 找到以行的值机柜台， 还没开始上班。 在机场里面游荡了一会， 然后找个地方吃了午饭， 回去继续等了 一会， 就看到开始值机了， 每个窗口前都摆了个长桌， 已经有一些旅客在值机， 听说以色列的安检很严， 果然是不太一样。 走到一个空的柜台前， 把准备好的材料给了工作人员， 还问了一大堆问题， 像什么为什么去以色列啊， 行李的东西是不是都是自己的啊， 行李有没有给别人看管过啊什么的。 还好今天没打开行李一样样细看。 很快搞定， 跟着就去登机口等了， 路上还要坐一段火车。
到了登机口才发现 原来安检的活在这了， 不知道是不是因为第一次去， 所以被抽到抽检， 把所有行李都拿出来查了一遍， 登机的时候也和其他人分开上机。 不过还好 一切都很顺利。 没发生被工作人员叫到一边谈话半个小时的事情。
飞机是波音777的大飞机， 确实大， 以前都只坐过150人左右的小飞机。 在飞机上没啥说的， 感觉和坐火车似的， 一路横跨中国， 再横跨哈萨克斯坦， 后面横跨了一些小国家， 叫不上名字了， 最终以色列时间22：15分降落在Tel aviv 机场， 下了飞机 一路快走， 兑换了1000美元的以色列Nis, 出门打的直奔酒店。 打的还发生个搞笑的事， 这个的士司机只会说希伯来语， 到了目的地拿手比划了半天才搞清楚， 不过还好一路顺畅， 司机也拉我兜圈子。打的花了150NIS， boss告诉我No more than 170. 还不错。
快速的check in, 到了房间才发现， 习惯了国内酒店的方式， 没带牙膏牙刷 拖鞋， 这里居然都没有。 看来只好明天再说了， 洗了个澡后， 看时间 国内已经6点多了， 就给lp打了个电话, 5.99/m. 赶紧睡觉， 不过有时差的问题， 没睡多久 就醒了， 这不 赶紧写下日记， 还要再睡的。
电脑的时间是10：34了， 还真不习惯， 外面天都还是黑的。 睡觉了。
昨天早上8点就起床了， 吃了lp给我做的面条， 9点钟出门 奔赴香港机场。
下楼直接上的士来到深圳湾口岸， 第一次来到传说中的口岸， 人不是很多。 来到bus售票点买了直通香港机场的票， 周末150， 7人坐的小车。 贵是真贵。 9：30车来， 一共就四个乘客。 怪不得贵。
坐这个车过关不用下车， 司机一路搞定两个关口， 上高速直奔香港机场。 还是有点距离的， 路上还看到一个摩托英豪在高速上飚的飞快， 香港还是比较人性 摩托没有禁掉。 到机场的时候才10点半， 除了路上等待花的时间， 其实到机场还是很快的。
由于是下午15：50的飞机， 所以还要等， 找到以行的值机柜台， 还没开始上班。 在机场里面游荡了一会， 然后找个地方吃了午饭， 回去继续等了 一会， 就看到开始值机了， 每个窗口前都摆了个长桌， 已经有一些旅客在值机， 听说以色列的安检很严， 果然是不太一样。 走到一个空的柜台前， 把准备好的材料给了工作人员， 还问了一大堆问题， 像什么为什么去以色列啊， 行李的东西是不是都是自己的啊， 行李有没有给别人看管过啊什么的。 还好今天没打开行李一样样细看。 很快搞定， 跟着就去登机口等了， 路上还要坐一段火车。
到了登机口才发现 原来安检的活在这了， 不知道是不是因为第一次去， 所以被抽到抽检， 把所有行李都拿出来查了一遍， 登机的时候也和其他人分开上机。 不过还好 一切都很顺利。 没发生被工作人员叫到一边谈话半个小时的事情。
飞机是波音777的大飞机， 确实大， 以前都只坐过150人左右的小飞机。 在飞机上没啥说的， 感觉和坐火车似的， 一路横跨中国， 再横跨哈萨克斯坦， 后面横跨了一些小国家， 叫不上名字了， 最终以色列时间22：15分降落在Tel aviv 机场， 下了飞机 一路快走， 兑换了1000美元的以色列Nis, 出门打的直奔酒店。 打的还发生个搞笑的事， 这个的士司机只会说希伯来语， 到了目的地拿手比划了半天才搞清楚， 不过还好一路顺畅， 司机也拉我兜圈子。打的花了150NIS， boss告诉我No more than 170. 还不错。
快速的check in, 到了房间才发现， 习惯了国内酒店的方式， 没带牙膏牙刷 拖鞋， 这里居然都没有。 看来只好明天再说了， 洗了个澡后， 看时间 国内已经6点多了， 就给lp打了个电话, 5.99/m. 赶紧睡觉， 不过有时差的问题， 没睡多久 就醒了， 这不 赶紧写下日记， 还要再睡的。
电脑的时间是10：34了， 还真不习惯， 外面天都还是黑的。 睡觉了。
2008年10月29日星期三
2008年10月27日星期一
2008年10月23日星期四
有关MAC、PHY和MII 【转】
以太网（Ethernet）是一种计算机局域网组网技术，该技术基于IEEE制定的IEEE 802.3标准，它规定了包括物理层的连线、电信号和介质访问层协议的内容。以太网是当前应用最普遍的局域网技术。它很大程度上取代了其他局域网标准，如令牌环、FDDI和ARCNET。历经100M以太网在上世纪末的飞速发展后，目前千兆以太网甚至10G以太网正在国际组织和领导企业的推动下不断拓展应用范围。基于以太网的应用一定时期内是研究开发热点。
ETHERNET的接口实质是MAC通过MII总线控制PHY的过程。
MAC是Media Access Control 的缩写，即媒体访问控制子层协议。该协议位于OSI七层协议中数据链路层的下半部分，主要负责控制与连接物理层的物理介质。在发送数据的时候，MAC协议可以事先判断是否可以发送数据，如果可以发送将给数据加上一些控制信息，最终将数据以及控制信息以规定的格式发送到物理层；在接收数据的时候，MAC协议首先判断输入的信息并是否发生传输错误，如果没有错误，则去掉控制信息发送至LLC层。以太网MAC由IEEE-802.3以太网标准定义。
MII即媒体独立接口, “媒体独立”表明在不对MAC硬件重新设计或替换的情况下，任何类型的PHY设备都可以正常工作。包括分别用于发送器和接收器的两条独立信道。每条信道都有自己的数据、时钟和控制信号。MII数据接口总共需要16个信号，包括TX_ER，TXD<3:0>，TX_EN，TX_CLK，COL，RXD<3:0>，RX_EX，RX_CLK，CRS，RX_DV等。
MII以4位半字节方式传送数据双向传输，时钟速率25MHz。其工作速率可达100Mb/s。MII管理接口是个双信号接口，一个是时钟信号，另一个是数据信号。通过管理接口，上层能监视和控制PHY。其管理是使用SMI（Serial Management Interface）总线通过读写PHY的寄存器来完成的。PHY里面的部分寄存器是IEEE定义的，这样PHY把自己的目前的状态反映到寄存器里面，MAC通过SMI总线不断的读取PHY的状态寄存器以得知目前PHY的状态，例如连接速度，双工的能力等。当然也可以通过SMI设置PHY的寄存器达到控制的目的，例如流控的打开关闭，自协商模式还是强制模式等。不论是物理连接的MII总线和SMI总线还是PHY的状态寄存器和控制寄存器都是有IEEE的规范的，因此不同公司的MAC和PHY一样可以协调工作。当然为了配合不同公司的PHY的自己特有的一些功能，驱动需要做相应的修改。
PHY是物理接口收发器，它实现物理层。包括MII/GMII（介质独立接口）子层、PCS（物理编码子层）、PMA（物理介质附加）子层、PMD（物理介质相关）子层、MDI子层。
100BaseTX采用4B/5B编码。PHY在发送数据的时候，收到MAC过来的数据（对PHY来说，没有帧的概念，对它来说，都是数据而不管什么地址，数据还是CRC），每4bit就增加1bit的检错码，然后把并行数据转化为串行流数据，再按照物理层的编码规则把数据编码，再变为模拟信号把数据送出去。收数据时的流程反之。PHY还有个重要的功能就是实现CSMA/CD的部分功能。它可以检测到网络上是否有数据在传送，如果有数据在传送中就等待，一旦检测到网络空闲，再等待一个随机时间后将送数据出去。如果两个碰巧同时送出了数据，那样必将造成冲突，这时候，冲突检测机构可以检测到冲突，然后各等待一个随机的时间重新发送数据。这个随机时间很有讲究的，并不是一个常数，在不同的时刻计算出来的随机时间都是不同的，而且有多重算法来应付出现概率很低的同两台主机之间的第二次冲突。通信速率通过双方协商，协商的结果是两个设备中能同时支持的最大速度和最好的双工模式。这个技术被称为Auto Negotiation或者NWAY。隔离变压器把PHY送出来的差分信号用差模耦合的线圈耦合滤波以增强信号，并且通过电磁场的转换耦合到连接网线的另外一端。RJ-45中1、2是传送数据的，3、6是接收数据的。新的PHY支持AUTO MDI-X功能(也需要隔离变压器支持)。它可以实现RJ-45接口的1、2上的传送信号线和3、6上的接收信号线的功能自动互相交换
网卡工作在osi的最后两层，物理层和数据链路层，物理层定义了数据传送与接收所需要的电与光信号、线路状态、时钟基准、数据编码和电路等，并向数据链路层设备提供标准接口。物理层的芯片称之为PHY。数据链路层则提供寻址机构、数据帧的构建、数据差错检查、传送控制、向网络层提供标准的数据接口等功能。以太网卡中数据链路层的芯片称之为MAC控制器。很多网卡的这两个部分是做到一起的。他们之间的关系是pci总线接mac总线，mac接phy，phy接网线（当然也不是直接接上的，还有一个变压装置）。
MAC 和PHY 一个是数据链路层 一个是物理层 两者通过MII传送数据。
ETHERNET的接口实质是MAC通过MII总线控制PHY的过程。
MAC是Media Access Control 的缩写，即媒体访问控制子层协议。该协议位于OSI七层协议中数据链路层的下半部分，主要负责控制与连接物理层的物理介质。在发送数据的时候，MAC协议可以事先判断是否可以发送数据，如果可以发送将给数据加上一些控制信息，最终将数据以及控制信息以规定的格式发送到物理层；在接收数据的时候，MAC协议首先判断输入的信息并是否发生传输错误，如果没有错误，则去掉控制信息发送至LLC层。以太网MAC由IEEE-802.3以太网标准定义。
MII即媒体独立接口, “媒体独立”表明在不对MAC硬件重新设计或替换的情况下，任何类型的PHY设备都可以正常工作。包括分别用于发送器和接收器的两条独立信道。每条信道都有自己的数据、时钟和控制信号。MII数据接口总共需要16个信号，包括TX_ER，TXD<3:0>，TX_EN，TX_CLK，COL，RXD<3:0>，RX_EX，RX_CLK，CRS，RX_DV等。
MII以4位半字节方式传送数据双向传输，时钟速率25MHz。其工作速率可达100Mb/s。MII管理接口是个双信号接口，一个是时钟信号，另一个是数据信号。通过管理接口，上层能监视和控制PHY。其管理是使用SMI（Serial Management Interface）总线通过读写PHY的寄存器来完成的。PHY里面的部分寄存器是IEEE定义的，这样PHY把自己的目前的状态反映到寄存器里面，MAC通过SMI总线不断的读取PHY的状态寄存器以得知目前PHY的状态，例如连接速度，双工的能力等。当然也可以通过SMI设置PHY的寄存器达到控制的目的，例如流控的打开关闭，自协商模式还是强制模式等。不论是物理连接的MII总线和SMI总线还是PHY的状态寄存器和控制寄存器都是有IEEE的规范的，因此不同公司的MAC和PHY一样可以协调工作。当然为了配合不同公司的PHY的自己特有的一些功能，驱动需要做相应的修改。
PHY是物理接口收发器，它实现物理层。包括MII/GMII（介质独立接口）子层、PCS（物理编码子层）、PMA（物理介质附加）子层、PMD（物理介质相关）子层、MDI子层。
100BaseTX采用4B/5B编码。PHY在发送数据的时候，收到MAC过来的数据（对PHY来说，没有帧的概念，对它来说，都是数据而不管什么地址，数据还是CRC），每4bit就增加1bit的检错码，然后把并行数据转化为串行流数据，再按照物理层的编码规则把数据编码，再变为模拟信号把数据送出去。收数据时的流程反之。PHY还有个重要的功能就是实现CSMA/CD的部分功能。它可以检测到网络上是否有数据在传送，如果有数据在传送中就等待，一旦检测到网络空闲，再等待一个随机时间后将送数据出去。如果两个碰巧同时送出了数据，那样必将造成冲突，这时候，冲突检测机构可以检测到冲突，然后各等待一个随机的时间重新发送数据。这个随机时间很有讲究的，并不是一个常数，在不同的时刻计算出来的随机时间都是不同的，而且有多重算法来应付出现概率很低的同两台主机之间的第二次冲突。通信速率通过双方协商，协商的结果是两个设备中能同时支持的最大速度和最好的双工模式。这个技术被称为Auto Negotiation或者NWAY。隔离变压器把PHY送出来的差分信号用差模耦合的线圈耦合滤波以增强信号，并且通过电磁场的转换耦合到连接网线的另外一端。RJ-45中1、2是传送数据的，3、6是接收数据的。新的PHY支持AUTO MDI-X功能(也需要隔离变压器支持)。它可以实现RJ-45接口的1、2上的传送信号线和3、6上的接收信号线的功能自动互相交换
网卡工作在osi的最后两层，物理层和数据链路层，物理层定义了数据传送与接收所需要的电与光信号、线路状态、时钟基准、数据编码和电路等，并向数据链路层设备提供标准接口。物理层的芯片称之为PHY。数据链路层则提供寻址机构、数据帧的构建、数据差错检查、传送控制、向网络层提供标准的数据接口等功能。以太网卡中数据链路层的芯片称之为MAC控制器。很多网卡的这两个部分是做到一起的。他们之间的关系是pci总线接mac总线，mac接phy，phy接网线（当然也不是直接接上的，还有一个变压装置）。
MAC 和PHY 一个是数据链路层 一个是物理层 两者通过MII传送数据。
2008年10月22日星期三
Training day 1
今天是公司安排培训的第一天， 主要由同事给介绍了公司的产品线， 公司人员构成以及相应的一些行业
技术规范之类。 很多新的东西。 下午总部的team leader给我发了这次training的schedule.
发现培训时间超过一个月， 工作这么久， 第一次参与公司的培训。
今天晚上没有自己做饭， 和lp在外卖一起吃了点。
到家后就玩玩板子， 上上网什么的， 八点多的时候准时出发去跑步了。
今天比较闷热， 跑起来感觉也不是很轻松， 不过还是可以坚持。 今天lp跑了4圈， 我还是跑了6圈。
等我跑完发现lp正在那打嗝， 就没再走了， 直接回家。
到家后赶紧弄了个火龙果吃， 吃完就好了 -_-
吃水果比喝水的效果好。
技术规范之类。 很多新的东西。 下午总部的team leader给我发了这次training的schedule.
发现培训时间超过一个月， 工作这么久， 第一次参与公司的培训。
今天晚上没有自己做饭， 和lp在外卖一起吃了点。
到家后就玩玩板子， 上上网什么的， 八点多的时候准时出发去跑步了。
今天比较闷热， 跑起来感觉也不是很轻松， 不过还是可以坚持。 今天lp跑了4圈， 我还是跑了6圈。
等我跑完发现lp正在那打嗝， 就没再走了， 直接回家。
到家后赶紧弄了个火龙果吃， 吃完就好了 -_-
吃水果比喝水的效果好。
2008年10月21日星期二
Keep working & running
由于还没有拿到钥匙， 今天早上10点才到公司， 以为应该有人了， 结果多等了半个小时。
期间在公司门口拿笔记本上网处理了下邮件， 和lp聊了聊天。
由于新入职， 所以目前的主要任务就是熟悉公司的业务， 以及将来自己要负责的部分工作。 今天下载了
team leader给的资料， 看了一天。 全英文， 看的头大。 很多新的行业知识需要补充。
下午和同事们一块下班回家。 离家近了， 每天都来的及自己做饭， 自己做饭好处实在是太多了。
味道好不说， 主要是卫生和健康很多。
今天炒了个大白菜， 另外烤了几个鸡翅膀。 晚上吃一份， 另外lp要打包一份当午餐。
这两天的晚餐都得到lp的夸奖， 看来手艺看涨。-_-
晚饭后 玩了会漂移板， 貌似越来越顺了。
休息了一会后， 和lp出发去跑步， 到了操场发现给拦了， 前几天也拦， 不过今天拦的更严实了。
还好只是白天有人包场的时候拦， 不然没得跑了。
到了操场就发现满世界是人， 跑到都快挤满了。 老规矩， 先走一圈， 后面再跑六圈。
不知道是不是最近跑多了的原因， 第一圈就觉得脚很沉， 不过跑到后来发现， 跑到最后一圈了
还是差不多的感觉， 还能加速跑完最后一段。
看来是有进步了 哇咔咔！
期间在公司门口拿笔记本上网处理了下邮件， 和lp聊了聊天。
由于新入职， 所以目前的主要任务就是熟悉公司的业务， 以及将来自己要负责的部分工作。 今天下载了
team leader给的资料， 看了一天。 全英文， 看的头大。 很多新的行业知识需要补充。
下午和同事们一块下班回家。 离家近了， 每天都来的及自己做饭， 自己做饭好处实在是太多了。
味道好不说， 主要是卫生和健康很多。
今天炒了个大白菜， 另外烤了几个鸡翅膀。 晚上吃一份， 另外lp要打包一份当午餐。
这两天的晚餐都得到lp的夸奖， 看来手艺看涨。-_-
晚饭后 玩了会漂移板， 貌似越来越顺了。
休息了一会后， 和lp出发去跑步， 到了操场发现给拦了， 前几天也拦， 不过今天拦的更严实了。
还好只是白天有人包场的时候拦， 不然没得跑了。
到了操场就发现满世界是人， 跑到都快挤满了。 老规矩， 先走一圈， 后面再跑六圈。
不知道是不是最近跑多了的原因， 第一圈就觉得脚很沉， 不过跑到后来发现， 跑到最后一圈了
还是差不多的感觉， 还能加速跑完最后一段。
看来是有进步了 哇咔咔！
SoC芯片介绍【转】
什么是SOC
随着设计与制造技术的发展，集成电路设计从晶体管的集成发展到逻辑门的集成，现在又发展到IP的集成，即SoC(SystemonaChip)设计技术。SoC可以有效地降低电子/信息系统产品的开发成本，缩短开发周期，提高产品的竞争力，是未来工业界将采用的最主要的产品开发方式。虽然SoC一词多年前就已出现，但到底什么是SoC则有各种不同的说法。在经过了多年的争论后，专家们就SoC的定义达成了一致意见。这个定义虽然不是非常严格，但明确地表明了SoC的特征：
实现复杂系统功能的VLSI；
采用超深亚微米工艺技术；
使用一个以上嵌入式CPU/数字信号处理器（DSP）；
外部可以对芯片进行编程；
怎样去理解
SoC中包含了微处理器/微控制器、存储器以及其他专用功能逻辑，但并不是包含了微处理器、存储器以及其他专用功能逻辑的芯片就是SoC。SoC技术被广泛认同的根本原因，并不在于SoC可以集成多少个晶体管，而在于SoC可以用较短时间被设计出来。这是SoC的主要价值所在——缩短产品的上市周期，因此，SoC更合理的定义为：SoC是在一个芯片上由于广泛使用预定制模块IP(Intellectual Property)而得以快速开发的集成电路。从设计上来说，SoC就是一个通过设计复用达到高生产率的硬件软件协同设计的过程。从方法学的角度来看，SoC是一套极大规模集成电路的设计方法学，包括IP核可复用设计/测试方法及接口规范、系统芯片总线式集成设计方法学、系统芯片验证和测试方法学。SOC 是一种设计理念，就是将各个可以集成在一起的模块集成到一个芯片上，他借鉴了软件的复用概念，也有了继承的概念。也可以说是包含了设计和测试等更多技术的一项新的设计技术。
SOC的一般构成
从大处来分，SOC含有：
1.逻辑核包括CPU、时钟电路、定时器、中断控制器、串并行接口、其它外围设备、I/O端口以及用于各种IP核之间的粘合逻辑等等；
2.存储器核包括各种易失、非易失以及Cacha等存储器；
3.模拟核包括ADC、DAC、PLL以及一些高速电路中所用的模拟电路。
目前 SOC遇到的难题
今天SoC的发展也至少遇到了以下四大难以逾越的挑战：
第一．IP的种类和复杂度越来越大以及通用接口的缺乏均使得IP的集成变得越来越困难；
第二．当今的高集成度SoC设计要求采用更先进的90nm以下工艺技术，而它将使得功率收敛和时序收敛的问题变得更加突出，这将不可避免地导致更长的设计验证时间；
第三．很难在SoC上实现模拟、混合信号和数字电路的集成；
第四．先进SoC开发的NRE成本动辄数千万美元，而且开发周期很长。
SOC芯片技术在手机领域举例
SoC技术的一大关键优势是它可以降低系统板上因信号在多个芯片之间进出带来的延迟而导致的性能局限，它也提高了系统的可靠性和降低了总的系统成本。此外，在PCB板空间特别紧张和将低功耗视为第一设计目标的应用中，如手机，SoC常常是唯一的高性价比解决方案。
基于Z228芯片，杰得提供接口丰富的系统板和开发包。以此为基础，研发人员能够快速地开发出功能各异的产品。列如智能手机。基于Z228芯片，只需使用较少的器件，研发人员就能较快地开发出功能强大的多媒体智能手机。Z228可以通过UART或68K接口与基带芯片通信。Z228支持主流的嵌入式操作系统，支持高质量的音视频通讯，具有数码相机/视频摄像功能和PDA功能，并具有软件扩展能力。Z228实现了高效的电源管理，提供多种工作模式，能有效延长智能手机的电池寿命。
其他应用举例
a.可视电话
Z228可用于设计低成本的可视电话和视频会议系统。使用Z228，并配合彩色图像传感器模块和LCD显示模块，产品可传送双向的MPEG-4视频信号。VGA尺寸的画面，再加上低延迟模式和防错技术，可显著改善用户体验。ARM926EJ处理器可运行SIP协议栈，并对视频流的码率进行即时动态调整，以适应不同的信道带宽。
视频监控
Z228是构建视频监控系统的理想选择。其内置的ARM9处理器和硬件视频编解码器有利于研制更加灵活和廉价的分布式终端设备和基于IP的监控网络，符合视频监控向网络化、数字化和智能化方向发展的趋势。Z228的先进的视频压缩算法，能在较低带宽下(小于700kbps)下提供良好的画质(大于30dB)；在低延迟模式下，端到端延迟(不计传输延迟)小于60ms；ARM9处理器的存在使得音视频同步的实现更为方便。
备注：Z228正是一款高集成度的SoC芯片。
什么是VLSI
将晶体管、电阻、电容、二极管等电子组件整合装至一芯片(chip)上，由于集成电路的体积极小，使电子运动的距离大幅缩小，因此速度极快且可靠性高，集成电路的种类一般是以内含晶体管等电子组件的数量来分类：
MSI (中型集成电路)，晶体管数 100~1,000
LSI (大规模集成电路)，晶体管数 1,000~10,0000
VLSI (超大规模集成电路)，晶体管数 100,000~
什么是IP核
IP核是具有复杂系统功能的能够独立出售的VISI块。
随着设计与制造技术的发展，集成电路设计从晶体管的集成发展到逻辑门的集成，现在又发展到IP的集成，即SoC(SystemonaChip)设计技术。SoC可以有效地降低电子/信息系统产品的开发成本，缩短开发周期，提高产品的竞争力，是未来工业界将采用的最主要的产品开发方式。虽然SoC一词多年前就已出现，但到底什么是SoC则有各种不同的说法。在经过了多年的争论后，专家们就SoC的定义达成了一致意见。这个定义虽然不是非常严格，但明确地表明了SoC的特征：
实现复杂系统功能的VLSI；
采用超深亚微米工艺技术；
使用一个以上嵌入式CPU/数字信号处理器（DSP）；
外部可以对芯片进行编程；
怎样去理解
SoC中包含了微处理器/微控制器、存储器以及其他专用功能逻辑，但并不是包含了微处理器、存储器以及其他专用功能逻辑的芯片就是SoC。SoC技术被广泛认同的根本原因，并不在于SoC可以集成多少个晶体管，而在于SoC可以用较短时间被设计出来。这是SoC的主要价值所在——缩短产品的上市周期，因此，SoC更合理的定义为：SoC是在一个芯片上由于广泛使用预定制模块IP(Intellectual Property)而得以快速开发的集成电路。从设计上来说，SoC就是一个通过设计复用达到高生产率的硬件软件协同设计的过程。从方法学的角度来看，SoC是一套极大规模集成电路的设计方法学，包括IP核可复用设计/测试方法及接口规范、系统芯片总线式集成设计方法学、系统芯片验证和测试方法学。SOC 是一种设计理念，就是将各个可以集成在一起的模块集成到一个芯片上，他借鉴了软件的复用概念，也有了继承的概念。也可以说是包含了设计和测试等更多技术的一项新的设计技术。
SOC的一般构成
从大处来分，SOC含有：
1.逻辑核包括CPU、时钟电路、定时器、中断控制器、串并行接口、其它外围设备、I/O端口以及用于各种IP核之间的粘合逻辑等等；
2.存储器核包括各种易失、非易失以及Cacha等存储器；
3.模拟核包括ADC、DAC、PLL以及一些高速电路中所用的模拟电路。
目前 SOC遇到的难题
今天SoC的发展也至少遇到了以下四大难以逾越的挑战：
第一．IP的种类和复杂度越来越大以及通用接口的缺乏均使得IP的集成变得越来越困难；
第二．当今的高集成度SoC设计要求采用更先进的90nm以下工艺技术，而它将使得功率收敛和时序收敛的问题变得更加突出，这将不可避免地导致更长的设计验证时间；
第三．很难在SoC上实现模拟、混合信号和数字电路的集成；
第四．先进SoC开发的NRE成本动辄数千万美元，而且开发周期很长。
SOC芯片技术在手机领域举例
SoC技术的一大关键优势是它可以降低系统板上因信号在多个芯片之间进出带来的延迟而导致的性能局限，它也提高了系统的可靠性和降低了总的系统成本。此外，在PCB板空间特别紧张和将低功耗视为第一设计目标的应用中，如手机，SoC常常是唯一的高性价比解决方案。
基于Z228芯片，杰得提供接口丰富的系统板和开发包。以此为基础，研发人员能够快速地开发出功能各异的产品。列如智能手机。基于Z228芯片，只需使用较少的器件，研发人员就能较快地开发出功能强大的多媒体智能手机。Z228可以通过UART或68K接口与基带芯片通信。Z228支持主流的嵌入式操作系统，支持高质量的音视频通讯，具有数码相机/视频摄像功能和PDA功能，并具有软件扩展能力。Z228实现了高效的电源管理，提供多种工作模式，能有效延长智能手机的电池寿命。
其他应用举例
a.可视电话
Z228可用于设计低成本的可视电话和视频会议系统。使用Z228，并配合彩色图像传感器模块和LCD显示模块，产品可传送双向的MPEG-4视频信号。VGA尺寸的画面，再加上低延迟模式和防错技术，可显著改善用户体验。ARM926EJ处理器可运行SIP协议栈，并对视频流的码率进行即时动态调整，以适应不同的信道带宽。
视频监控
Z228是构建视频监控系统的理想选择。其内置的ARM9处理器和硬件视频编解码器有利于研制更加灵活和廉价的分布式终端设备和基于IP的监控网络，符合视频监控向网络化、数字化和智能化方向发展的趋势。Z228的先进的视频压缩算法，能在较低带宽下(小于700kbps)下提供良好的画质(大于30dB)；在低延迟模式下，端到端延迟(不计传输延迟)小于60ms；ARM9处理器的存在使得音视频同步的实现更为方便。
备注：Z228正是一款高集成度的SoC芯片。
什么是VLSI
将晶体管、电阻、电容、二极管等电子组件整合装至一芯片(chip)上，由于集成电路的体积极小，使电子运动的距离大幅缩小，因此速度极快且可靠性高，集成电路的种类一般是以内含晶体管等电子组件的数量来分类：
MSI (中型集成电路)，晶体管数 100~1,000
LSI (大规模集成电路)，晶体管数 1,000~10,0000
VLSI (超大规模集成电路)，晶体管数 100,000~
什么是IP核
IP核是具有复杂系统功能的能够独立出售的VISI块。
2008年10月20日星期一
keep running
今天做了挺多事情， 早上跑去和新公司签了两年合同， 在离职后马上又把自己给卖了。
上午到新公司后和同事聊了聊， 基本了解了下新公司的一些制度。 总的来说新公司管理相当
宽松。 同事早上十点才来的。 中午拿到新电脑。 折腾了一下午系统， 不过还是有点问题。
最后下了个winxp sp3. 晚上回家全部重新装了。
18：00 到家， 给lp和自己准备晚饭， 顺便把xp给刻了个盘， 炒好菜lp就到家了。 时间刚刚好。
今天lp赞我做的菜好吃（今天放的油多）。 吃完饭lp去洗碗。 我就赶紧的折腾系统去了。
装到20：10分， 到跑步时间。 和lp一起来到操场。 和昨天一样， 先走后跑。
今天lp状态一般跑完三圈就休息了， 我还是跑了六圈。 这两天天气都很热。 跑两下就全身湿透了。
回到家 今天也没再玩哑铃什么的， 接着整系统。 期间洗了个澡。 到现在算是基本都装好了。
后面就看要用啥 再装了。
马上开始新工作了， 给自己加加油!
上午到新公司后和同事聊了聊， 基本了解了下新公司的一些制度。 总的来说新公司管理相当
宽松。 同事早上十点才来的。 中午拿到新电脑。 折腾了一下午系统， 不过还是有点问题。
最后下了个winxp sp3. 晚上回家全部重新装了。
18：00 到家， 给lp和自己准备晚饭， 顺便把xp给刻了个盘， 炒好菜lp就到家了。 时间刚刚好。
今天lp赞我做的菜好吃（今天放的油多）。 吃完饭lp去洗碗。 我就赶紧的折腾系统去了。
装到20：10分， 到跑步时间。 和lp一起来到操场。 和昨天一样， 先走后跑。
今天lp状态一般跑完三圈就休息了， 我还是跑了六圈。 这两天天气都很热。 跑两下就全身湿透了。
回到家 今天也没再玩哑铃什么的， 接着整系统。 期间洗了个澡。 到现在算是基本都装好了。
后面就看要用啥 再装了。
马上开始新工作了， 给自己加加油!
2008年10月19日星期日
2008年10月16日星期四
2008年10月15日星期三
今天跑了六圈
昨天下雨只跑完三圈就回了， 今天天气还是不错。
最近来运动的人好像越来越多了， 平时只有周末才会看到这么多人。 看来大家的健康意识是越来越强了。
今天还是一样， 和lp先绕场走一圈， 边走边聊。 讲讲工作上的事啥的。 平时在家都是看电视， 到这
还不错， 可以聊天。
一圈很快走完了， 开始跑步。 一路控制着比较均匀的速度。 发现这一个多礼拜的运动下来真的是有效果的
比起最初， 那跑起来是轻松多了， 今天和lp跑完三圈 还只是微微的开始冒汗。 lp先到一边休息去了。
一个人接着跑， 第四圈， 还行， 汗比较多了。
第五圈 也差不多， 脚有点酸。 那就多跑一圈了， 最后一圈还加了点速， 很快就跑完六圈， 感觉比原来跑
五圈还轻松点， 和lp一起又走了一圈。 做上20个俯卧撑， 感觉手臂涨涨的。
回家！
以后都跑六圈了， 锻炼初见成效!
最近来运动的人好像越来越多了， 平时只有周末才会看到这么多人。 看来大家的健康意识是越来越强了。
今天还是一样， 和lp先绕场走一圈， 边走边聊。 讲讲工作上的事啥的。 平时在家都是看电视， 到这
还不错， 可以聊天。
一圈很快走完了， 开始跑步。 一路控制着比较均匀的速度。 发现这一个多礼拜的运动下来真的是有效果的
比起最初， 那跑起来是轻松多了， 今天和lp跑完三圈 还只是微微的开始冒汗。 lp先到一边休息去了。
一个人接着跑， 第四圈， 还行， 汗比较多了。
第五圈 也差不多， 脚有点酸。 那就多跑一圈了， 最后一圈还加了点速， 很快就跑完六圈， 感觉比原来跑
五圈还轻松点， 和lp一起又走了一圈。 做上20个俯卧撑， 感觉手臂涨涨的。
回家！
以后都跑六圈了， 锻炼初见成效!
2008年10月14日星期二
2008年10月13日星期一
2008年10月12日星期日
自由基 抗氧化 继续跑步
昨天吃坏了肚子就没有去跑步了。 今天一切都不错。
晚饭吃的比较早， 六点多点就吃完了。 看电视的时候切到翡翠台， 看到个讲自由基对人体老化的影响
看的心惊胆颤， 节目里一个人才50出头的年纪， 结果皮肤是属于70左右的人才应该有的水平了。
然后看节目介绍， 红酒是最好的抗氧化食物， 拥有最高的对抗自由基的抗氧化成分。 看来以后应该喝点
红酒， 多吃草莓和橙子， 蔬菜上就多吃菜心。
看完电视， 今天继续跑步。 换好装备后和lp来到操场， 还是照惯例， 先走一圈。 接下来还是5圈的慢跑。
lp跑完三圈就到场边去等我了， 一个人跑就不容易控制速度， 慢慢就快了起来， 后两圈跑的是大汗淋漓。
最后跑到lp身边做了会拉伸运动。 放松一下胳膊和腿部肌肉。 接着和lp一起绕场慢慢走了一圈。 彻底
放松。 回家后继续做了几个俯卧撑， 玩了会哑铃。 有氧运动， 力量训练结合。
晚饭吃的比较早， 六点多点就吃完了。 看电视的时候切到翡翠台， 看到个讲自由基对人体老化的影响
看的心惊胆颤， 节目里一个人才50出头的年纪， 结果皮肤是属于70左右的人才应该有的水平了。
然后看节目介绍， 红酒是最好的抗氧化食物， 拥有最高的对抗自由基的抗氧化成分。 看来以后应该喝点
红酒， 多吃草莓和橙子， 蔬菜上就多吃菜心。
看完电视， 今天继续跑步。 换好装备后和lp来到操场， 还是照惯例， 先走一圈。 接下来还是5圈的慢跑。
lp跑完三圈就到场边去等我了， 一个人跑就不容易控制速度， 慢慢就快了起来， 后两圈跑的是大汗淋漓。
最后跑到lp身边做了会拉伸运动。 放松一下胳膊和腿部肌肉。 接着和lp一起绕场慢慢走了一圈。 彻底
放松。 回家后继续做了几个俯卧撑， 玩了会哑铃。 有氧运动， 力量训练结合。
2008年10月10日星期五
慢跑记录
今天是周末了， 和lp在外面吃了晚饭。 没有自己做。
到家19：40左右， 先是lp给家里打电话， 我在客厅玩漂移板， 发现每天刚回来的时候 滑的都不错
滑一会脚有点累了 就会开始动作变形 滑不了了。 不过就这么一会 感觉比昨天又有小进步-_-
等lp煲完电话粥， 我们就出发了， 今天就不带板子了。 大概是周末的原因, 今天人多了很多
老规矩，先绕场走上一圈， 然后开始跑， 今天由于跑道上人很多， 跑起来就比较吃力， 经常要换跑到
感觉跑到最后一圈累的不行， 不过还是咬咬牙坚持了5圈. lp跑了三圈就在等我了， 和lp一起又走了一圈，
期间跑到草皮上做了两组俯卧撑（一共才25个-_-!!), 继续汗流浃背！
打完收工， 回家鸟！
到家给老爸老妈打电话，汇报了下这一周的运动情况~
今天小表妹在我家里， 貌似才过几天， 小家伙说话清楚了不少。
和老爸老妈聊了会家常， 不在父母身边， 只能多打电话了.
到家19：40左右， 先是lp给家里打电话， 我在客厅玩漂移板， 发现每天刚回来的时候 滑的都不错
滑一会脚有点累了 就会开始动作变形 滑不了了。 不过就这么一会 感觉比昨天又有小进步-_-
等lp煲完电话粥， 我们就出发了， 今天就不带板子了。 大概是周末的原因, 今天人多了很多
老规矩，先绕场走上一圈， 然后开始跑， 今天由于跑道上人很多， 跑起来就比较吃力， 经常要换跑到
感觉跑到最后一圈累的不行， 不过还是咬咬牙坚持了5圈. lp跑了三圈就在等我了， 和lp一起又走了一圈，
期间跑到草皮上做了两组俯卧撑（一共才25个-_-!!), 继续汗流浃背！
打完收工， 回家鸟！
到家给老爸老妈打电话，汇报了下这一周的运动情况~
今天小表妹在我家里， 貌似才过几天， 小家伙说话清楚了不少。
和老爸老妈聊了会家常， 不在父母身边， 只能多打电话了.
2008年10月9日星期四
红烧鱼 跑步
标题这两个其实没啥关系 呵呵。
昨天晚上打了场篮球就没跑步了， 今天是一定要继续了。
下班赶到家后就帮lp打下手， 忙着做饭。 最后一道菜是红烧鱼， 今天lp亲自操刀。
煎了好久， 还端着锅转， 不过这锅太重， 赶上我的哑铃了。 锅里油不少， 看着像是炸鱼排了。
最后下了酱油和剁椒， 结果翻了几下一看， 和我做的一样， 鱼皮也粘锅底了。 不过味道还是
很正的， 鱼好吃 这饭吃的自然就多而且慢了。 吃完饭19：47分了。 今天跑步时间就往后推了推。
到了8：30， 和lp换好行头出门。 今天也拿上了漂移板。
到了操场， 由于今天天气不错， 人气明显旺盛。 先靠着扶手玩了会板子， 这断断续续玩了几天了
还是没学会。 记得小时候学旱冰那叫一个快， 不过那时候一天能玩10小时。 现在一个小时不到。
看来时间才是最好的老师。
10分钟后， 和lp下跑到开始慢跑， 今天的计划还是5圈， 不过刚下去感觉还是有点饱（红烧鱼好吃
就多吃了）， 先绕场走了一圈。 第二圈开始跑， 感觉今天脚有点沉， 也许是昨天打了球的缘故吧，
不过看lp跑的轻松， 我就咬牙坚持着， 过了两圈后到是没啥感觉了（-_-!!估摸着脚麻了）。
lp跑了三圈半 收工， 我还是坚持跑完目标5圈。 停下来的时候都晃晃悠悠了。
休息了会就回了。 又是一身臭汗。
回到家继续来了几组哑铃， 目标完成， 收工！
昨天晚上打了场篮球就没跑步了， 今天是一定要继续了。
下班赶到家后就帮lp打下手， 忙着做饭。 最后一道菜是红烧鱼， 今天lp亲自操刀。
煎了好久， 还端着锅转， 不过这锅太重， 赶上我的哑铃了。 锅里油不少， 看着像是炸鱼排了。
最后下了酱油和剁椒， 结果翻了几下一看， 和我做的一样， 鱼皮也粘锅底了。 不过味道还是
很正的， 鱼好吃 这饭吃的自然就多而且慢了。 吃完饭19：47分了。 今天跑步时间就往后推了推。
到了8：30， 和lp换好行头出门。 今天也拿上了漂移板。
到了操场， 由于今天天气不错， 人气明显旺盛。 先靠着扶手玩了会板子， 这断断续续玩了几天了
还是没学会。 记得小时候学旱冰那叫一个快， 不过那时候一天能玩10小时。 现在一个小时不到。
看来时间才是最好的老师。
10分钟后， 和lp下跑到开始慢跑， 今天的计划还是5圈， 不过刚下去感觉还是有点饱（红烧鱼好吃
就多吃了）， 先绕场走了一圈。 第二圈开始跑， 感觉今天脚有点沉， 也许是昨天打了球的缘故吧，
不过看lp跑的轻松， 我就咬牙坚持着， 过了两圈后到是没啥感觉了（-_-!!估摸着脚麻了）。
lp跑了三圈半 收工， 我还是坚持跑完目标5圈。 停下来的时候都晃晃悠悠了。
休息了会就回了。 又是一身臭汗。
回到家继续来了几组哑铃， 目标完成， 收工！
2008年10月7日星期二
继续慢跑
今天天气不是很好， 下班的时候发现外面湿湿的， 就一直担心今天是不是跑不成了
还好回家路上发现福田这边都比较干， 跑跑步没什么问题。
和lp一起在外面吃了晚饭才回的家， 到家19：30了。 开电脑先玩会， 结果lp突然对我说外面下雨了。
这天！ 要下就下， 结果他偏偏滴两滴 就透一会。 磨磨蹭蹭到20：30， 外面还是一样时不时飘上几下，
在心里左右摇摆了半天， 还是决定去跑， 漂移板就不带了。
和lp快步走到操场， 今天这天气人果然少很多， 小孩子基本是看不到了。 走了一小段活动开就开始跑了。
今天在跑到第三圈后段感觉到极限了， 不过咬牙坚持下来了， 最后一共跑了5圈， lp跑了三圈。 然后和lp
一起绕着操场快步走了一圈回家。 又出一身臭汗。 不过跑跑步还真是心情舒畅！
回家玩了会哑铃和漂移板， 今天到此为止了。
ps： 可以在板子上往左边滑上一段了， 比起昨天来说有进步了! -_-
还好回家路上发现福田这边都比较干， 跑跑步没什么问题。
和lp一起在外面吃了晚饭才回的家， 到家19：30了。 开电脑先玩会， 结果lp突然对我说外面下雨了。
这天！ 要下就下， 结果他偏偏滴两滴 就透一会。 磨磨蹭蹭到20：30， 外面还是一样时不时飘上几下，
在心里左右摇摆了半天， 还是决定去跑， 漂移板就不带了。
和lp快步走到操场， 今天这天气人果然少很多， 小孩子基本是看不到了。 走了一小段活动开就开始跑了。
今天在跑到第三圈后段感觉到极限了， 不过咬牙坚持下来了， 最后一共跑了5圈， lp跑了三圈。 然后和lp
一起绕着操场快步走了一圈回家。 又出一身臭汗。 不过跑跑步还真是心情舒畅！
回家玩了会哑铃和漂移板， 今天到此为止了。
ps： 可以在板子上往左边滑上一段了， 比起昨天来说有进步了! -_-
2008年10月6日星期一
2008年10月4日星期六
2008年9月25日星期四
LKD 笔记 3
第 5 章 系统调用
为了和用户空间运行的程序进行交互，内核提供的一组接口.
系统调用在用户空间进程和硬件设备之间添加了一个中间层, 有以下三个作用
1. 为用户空间提供一个硬件抽象接口
2. 保证系统的稳定和安全. 可以避免应用程序不正确的使用硬件设备等造成对系统的危害.
3. 对每个进程虚拟空间实现的支持
在linux中系统调用是用户空间访问内核的唯一手段. 除异常和陷入外，它们是内核唯一的合法入口.
linux系统调用作为c库的一部分提供,并且c库提供了POSIX的绝大部分API.
提供机制而不是策略
asmlinkage 用于通知编译器仅从栈中提取该函数的参数.
所有系统调用都需要这个限定词.
所有系统调用在内核的实现都带sys_
系统调用号与系统调用进行对应，当用户程序执行一个系统调用的时候， 系统调用号被用来指明到底要调用哪个系统调用
进程不会提及系统调用的名称
linux有一个"未实现"系统调用 sys_ni_syscall() 返回-ENOSYS 它是针对无效系统调用设置的
内核记录了系统调用表中的所有已经注册的系统调用列表,存储在sys_call_table中, 这个表中为每一个有效的系统调用指定了
唯一的系统调用号.
系统调用处理程序system_call()
用户进程通过软中断通知内核,软中断导致系统切换到内核态并执行第128号异常处理程序,即系统调用处理程序.
调用系统调用的时候，eax用来放置相应的系统调用号
参数传递通过ebx ecx edx esi edi来放置前5个参数, 给用户空间的返回值也通过寄存器传递
系统调用的实现
"提供机制而不是策略"
参数验证
系统调用必须仔细检查他们的参数是否合法有效.
指针检查：
1. 指针指向的内存区域属于用户空间
2. 指针指向的区域在进程的地址空间里
3. 进程不能绕过内存访问限制进行内存操作
copy_to_user() copy_from_user() 执行失败 返回没能完成拷贝的字节数, 否则返回0
保证系统调用可重入 reentrant
sys_call_table asm/unistd.h
第 6 章 中断和中断处理程序
中断机制： 让硬件在需要时再向内核发出信号.
在响应一个特定中断的时候，内核会执行一个函数 即中断处理程序
中断处理程序是和特定的中断关联的
中断处理程序运行于中断上下文
中断处理程序分上半部与下半部
上半部只做有严格时限的工作，例如对接收的中断进行应答
那些允许可以稍侯完成的工作被放到下半部
drivers can register and active a interrupt handler by the following function
int request_irq(unsigned int irq, irqreturn_t (*handler)(int, void*, struct pt_regs *),
unsigned long irqflags, const char *devname, void* dev_id)
irqflags:
SA_INTERRUPT: fast interrupt handler. 在本地处理器上,中断处理程序在禁止所有中断的情况下运行.
SA_SAMPLE_RANDOM:
SA_SHIRQ: 多个中断处理程序共享中断线
release handler
void free_irq(unsigned int irq, void *dev_id);
一个典型的中断处理程序声明
static irqreturn_t intr_handler(int irq, void* dev_id, struct pt_regs* regs);
linux 的中断处理程序是无需重入的
当一个给定的中断处理程序正在执行的时候，相应的中断线在所有的处理器上都会被屏蔽
共享的中断处理程序
与非共享的差异:
1. irqflags必须为SA_SHIRQ
2. 对每个注册的中断处理程序来说, dev_id必须唯一. 不能传递NULL
3. 中断处理程序必须能够区分它的设备是否真的产生了中断. 必须硬件支持,同时中断处理程序有相应的处理逻辑
当执行一个中断处理程序或下半部的时候， 内核处于中断上下文
local_irq_disable()
local_irq_enable()
禁止和允许当前处理器上的中断
unsigned long flag;
local_irq_save(flag)
local_irq_restore(flag)
禁止指定中断线
void disable_irq(unsigned int irq);
void disable_irq_nosync(unsigned int irq);
void enable_irq(unsigned int irq);
void synchronize_irq(unsigned int irq);
对disable_irq()和disable_irq_nosync()的每次调用都需要相应的调用一个enable_irq()
in_interrupt() 在中断上下文返回非0, 进程上下文返回0
in_irq() 正在执行中断处理程序返回非0
为了和用户空间运行的程序进行交互，内核提供的一组接口.
系统调用在用户空间进程和硬件设备之间添加了一个中间层, 有以下三个作用
1. 为用户空间提供一个硬件抽象接口
2. 保证系统的稳定和安全. 可以避免应用程序不正确的使用硬件设备等造成对系统的危害.
3. 对每个进程虚拟空间实现的支持
在linux中系统调用是用户空间访问内核的唯一手段. 除异常和陷入外，它们是内核唯一的合法入口.
linux系统调用作为c库的一部分提供,并且c库提供了POSIX的绝大部分API.
提供机制而不是策略
asmlinkage 用于通知编译器仅从栈中提取该函数的参数.
所有系统调用都需要这个限定词.
所有系统调用在内核的实现都带sys_
系统调用号与系统调用进行对应，当用户程序执行一个系统调用的时候， 系统调用号被用来指明到底要调用哪个系统调用
进程不会提及系统调用的名称
linux有一个"未实现"系统调用 sys_ni_syscall() 返回-ENOSYS 它是针对无效系统调用设置的
内核记录了系统调用表中的所有已经注册的系统调用列表,存储在sys_call_table中, 这个表中为每一个有效的系统调用指定了
唯一的系统调用号.
系统调用处理程序system_call()
用户进程通过软中断通知内核,软中断导致系统切换到内核态并执行第128号异常处理程序,即系统调用处理程序.
调用系统调用的时候，eax用来放置相应的系统调用号
参数传递通过ebx ecx edx esi edi来放置前5个参数, 给用户空间的返回值也通过寄存器传递
系统调用的实现
"提供机制而不是策略"
参数验证
系统调用必须仔细检查他们的参数是否合法有效.
指针检查：
1. 指针指向的内存区域属于用户空间
2. 指针指向的区域在进程的地址空间里
3. 进程不能绕过内存访问限制进行内存操作
copy_to_user() copy_from_user() 执行失败 返回没能完成拷贝的字节数, 否则返回0
保证系统调用可重入 reentrant
sys_call_table asm/unistd.h
第 6 章 中断和中断处理程序
中断机制： 让硬件在需要时再向内核发出信号.
在响应一个特定中断的时候，内核会执行一个函数 即中断处理程序
中断处理程序是和特定的中断关联的
中断处理程序运行于中断上下文
中断处理程序分上半部与下半部
上半部只做有严格时限的工作，例如对接收的中断进行应答
那些允许可以稍侯完成的工作被放到下半部
drivers can register and active a interrupt handler by the following function
int request_irq(unsigned int irq, irqreturn_t (*handler)(int, void*, struct pt_regs *),
unsigned long irqflags, const char *devname, void* dev_id)
irqflags:
SA_INTERRUPT: fast interrupt handler. 在本地处理器上,中断处理程序在禁止所有中断的情况下运行.
SA_SAMPLE_RANDOM:
SA_SHIRQ: 多个中断处理程序共享中断线
release handler
void free_irq(unsigned int irq, void *dev_id);
一个典型的中断处理程序声明
static irqreturn_t intr_handler(int irq, void* dev_id, struct pt_regs* regs);
linux 的中断处理程序是无需重入的
当一个给定的中断处理程序正在执行的时候，相应的中断线在所有的处理器上都会被屏蔽
共享的中断处理程序
与非共享的差异:
1. irqflags必须为SA_SHIRQ
2. 对每个注册的中断处理程序来说, dev_id必须唯一. 不能传递NULL
3. 中断处理程序必须能够区分它的设备是否真的产生了中断. 必须硬件支持,同时中断处理程序有相应的处理逻辑
当执行一个中断处理程序或下半部的时候， 内核处于中断上下文
local_irq_disable()
local_irq_enable()
禁止和允许当前处理器上的中断
unsigned long flag;
local_irq_save(flag)
local_irq_restore(flag)
禁止指定中断线
void disable_irq(unsigned int irq);
void disable_irq_nosync(unsigned int irq);
void enable_irq(unsigned int irq);
void synchronize_irq(unsigned int irq);
对disable_irq()和disable_irq_nosync()的每次调用都需要相应的调用一个enable_irq()
in_interrupt() 在中断上下文返回非0, 进程上下文返回0
in_irq() 正在执行中断处理程序返回非0
2008年9月6日星期六
U-BOOT的启动流程及移植 【转】
1 Bootloader及u-boot简介
Bootloader代码是芯片复位后进入操作系统之前执行的一段代码，主要用于完成由硬件启动到操作系统启动的过渡，从而为操作系统提供基本的运行环境，如初始化CPU、堆栈、存储器系统等。Bootloader 代码与CPU芯片的内核结构、具体型号、应用系统的配置及使用的操作系统等因素有关，其功能类似于PC机的BIOS程序。由于bootloader和CPU及电路板的配置情况有关，因此不可能有通用的bootloader，开发时需要用户根据具体情况进行移植。嵌入式Linux系统中常用的bootloader有armboot、redboot、blob、u-boot等，其中u-boot是当前比较流行、功能比较强大的bootloader，可以支持多种体系结构，但相对也比较复杂。bootloader的实现依赖于CPU的体系结构，大多数bootloader都分为stage 1和stage 2两大部分。Bootloader的基本原理见参考文献。
u-boot是sourceforge网站上的一个开放源代码的项目。它可对PowerPC(MPC5xx、MPC8xx、MPC82xx、MPC7xx、MPC74xx) 、ARM(ARM7、ARM9、StrongARM、Xscale) 、MIPS(4kc、5kc) 、X86等处理器提供支持，支持的嵌入式操作系统有Linux、Vx-Works、NetBSD、QNX、RTEMS、ARTOS、LynxOS等，主要用来开发嵌入式系统初始化代码bootloader。软件的主站点是http://sourceforge.net/projects/u-boot。u-boot最初是由denx(www.denx.de) 的PPC-boot发展而来的，它对PowerPC系列处理器的支持最完善，对Linux操作系统的支持最好。源代码开放的u-boot软件项目经常更新，是学习硬件底层代码开发的很好样例。
2 u-boot系统启动流程
大多数bootloader都分为stage1和stage2两大部分，u-boot也不例外。依赖于CPU体系结构的代码(如设备初始化代码等) 通常都放在stage1，且可以用汇编语言来实现，而stage2则通常用C语言来实现，这样可以实现复杂的功能，而且有更好的可读性和移植性。
2.1 stage1 (start.s代码结构)
u-boot的stage1代码通常放在start.s文件中，它用汇编语言写成，其主要代码部分如下:
(1) 定义入口由于一个可执行的Image必须有一个入口点，并且只能有一个全局入口，通常这个入口放在ROM(Flash) 的0x0地址，因此，必须通知编译器以使其知道这个入口，该工作可通过修改连接器脚本来完成。
(2) 设置异常向量(Exception Vector) 。
(3) 设置CPU的速度、时钟频率及中断控制寄存器。
(4) 初始化内存控制器
(5) 将ROM中的程序复制到RAM中。
(6) 初始化堆栈
(7) 转到RAM中执行，该工作可使用指令ldr pc来完成。
2.2 stage2 C语言代码部分
lib_arm/board.c中的start_armboot是C语言开始的函数，也是整个启动代码中C语言的主函数，同时还是整个u-boot(armboot) 的主函数，该函数主要完成如下操作:
(1) 调用一系列的初始化函数。
(2) 初始化Flash设备。
(3) 初始化系统内存分配函数。
(4) 如果目标系统拥有NAND设备，则初始化NAND设备。
(5) 如果目标系统有显示设备，则初始化该类设备。
(6) 初始化相关网络设备，填写IP、MAC地址等。
(7) 进入命令循环(即整个boot的工作循环) ，接受用户从串口输入的命令，然后进行相应的工作。
3 移植实例
本系统开发板主要由S3C44B0X嵌入式微处理器、2MB的Flash (SST39VF160) 、8MB的SDRAM(HY57V641620) 、4个LED以及ARM JTAG接口组成。该开发板上与S3C44B0X相关部分的功能框图如图1所示。
3.1 u-boot文件下载
u-boot文件的下载有两种方法，第一种是在Linux环境下通过CVS下载最新的文件，方法是:
$ cvs -d :pserver:anonymous@cvs.sourceforge.net:/cvsroot/u-boot login
当要求输入匿名登录的密码时，可直接按回车键
$ cvs -z6 -d :pserver:anonymous@cvs.sourceforge.net:/cvsroot/u-boot co -P modulename
第二种是通过ftp://ftp.denx.de/pub/u-boot/下载正式发布的压缩文件。
3.2 u-boot文件的结构
初次下载的文件有很多，解压后存放在u-boot文件目录下，具体内容已在readme文件中做了详细的介绍，其中与移植相关的主要文件夹有:
(1) cpu/ 它的每个子文件夹里都有如下文件:
makefile
config.mk
cpu.c 和处理器相关的代码
interrupts.c 中断处理代码
serial.c 串口初始化代码
start.s 全局开始启动代码
(2) board/ 它的每个子文件夹里都有如下文件:
makefile
config.mk
smdk2410.c 和板子相关的代码(以smdk2410为例)
flash.c Flash操作代码
memsetup.s 初始化SDRAM代码
u-boot.lds 对应的连接文件
(3) lib_arm/ 体系结构下的相关实现代码，比如memcpy等的汇编语言的优化实现。
3.3 交叉编译环境的建立
要得到下载到目标板的u-boot二进制启动代码，还需要对下载的u-boot1.1.1进行编译。u-boot的编译一般在Linux系统下进行，可用arm-linux-gcc进行编译。一步一步建立交叉编译环境通常比较复杂，最简单的方法是使用别人编译好的交叉编译工具，方法如下:
(1) 在http://handhelds.org/download/toolchain下载arm-linux-gcc-3.3.2.tar.bz2
(2) 以用户名root登录，将arm-linux-gcc-3.3.2.tar.bz2 解压到 /root目录下
# tar jxvf arm-linux-gcc-3.3.2.tar.bz2
(3) 在http://handhelds.org/download/toolchain下载arm-linux-toolchain-post-2.2.13.tar.gz，只是用了它的头文件而已，主要来自内核/linux-x.x/include下
(4) 将arm-linux-toolchain-post-2.2. 13.tar.gz 解压到/skiff/local/ 下
# tar zxvf arm-linux-toolchain-post-2.2.13.tar.gz
(5) 拷贝头文件到/root/usr/3.3.2/arm-linux/ 下，然后删除/skiff
# cp -dR /skiff/local/arm-linux/include /root/usr/3.3.2/arm-linux
# rm -fr /skiff
这样就建立了armlinux 交叉编译环境。
(6) 增加/root/usr/local/arm/3.3.2/bin到路径环境变量
# export PATH=$PATH:/root/usr/local/arm/3.3.2/bin
可以检查路径变量是否设置正确。
# echo $PATH
3.4 移植的预先编译
移植u-boot到新的开发板上仅需要修改与硬件相关的部分即可。主要包括两个层面的移植，第一层是针对CPU的移植，第二层是针对board的移植。由于u-boot1.1.1里面已经包含S3C44B0的移植，所以笔者对板子myboard的移植主要是针对board的移植。移植之前需要仔细阅读u-boot目录下的README文件，其中对如何移植做了简要的介绍。为了减少移植的工作量，可以在include/config目录下选一个和要移植的硬件相似的开发板，笔者选的是b2开发板。具体步骤如下:
(1) u-boot 1.1.1 下的cpu文件夹里已经包括了s3c44b0的目录，其下已经有start.s、interrupts.c以及cpu.c、serial.c几个文件，因而不需要建立与cpu相关的目录。
(2) 在board目录下创建myboard目录以及my-board.c、flash.c、memsetup.s和u-boot.lds等文件。不需要从零开始创建，只需选择一个相似的目录直接复制过来，然后修改文件名及内容即可。笔者在移植u-boot过程中选择的是u-boot1.1.1/board/dave/B2目录。
(3) 在include/configs目录下添加myboard.h，在这里可放入全局的宏定义等，也不需要从头创建，可以在include/configs目录下寻找相似的CPU的头文件进行复制，这里笔者用的是B2.h文件来进行相关的修改。
(4) 对u-boot根目录下的Makefile文件进行修改，加入
myboard_config: unconfig
@$(MKCONFIG) $(@:_config=) arm s3c44b0 myboard
(5) 修改u-boot根目录下的Makefile文件，加入对板子的申明。然后在Makefile中加入myboard
LIST_ ARM7 = "B2 ep7312 impa7 myboard"
(6) 运行make clobber，删除错误的depend文件。
(7) 运行make myboard config。
(8) 执行到此处即表示整个软件的makefile已建立，这时可修改生成的makefile中的交叉编译选项，然后打开makefile 文件，并找到其中的语句:
ifeq($(ARCH) , arm)
CROSS_COMPILE=arm-linux-
end if
接着将其改成
ifeq($(ARCH) ,arm)
CROSS COMPILE=/root/usr/local/3.3.2/bin/arm-linux-
end if
这一步和上面的设置环境变量只要有一个就可以了。
执行make，报告有一个错误，修改myboard/flash.c中的#include "../common/flash.c"为"u-boot/board/dave/common/flash.c"，重新编译即可通过。
4 移植时的具体修改要点
若预先编译没有错误就可以开始硬件相关代码的移植，首先必须要对移植的硬件有清楚地了解，如CPU、CPU的控制寄存器及启动各阶段程序在Flash SDRAM中的布局等。
笔者在移植过程中先修改/include/config/my-board.h头文件中的大部分参数(大部分的宏定义都在这里设置) ，然后按照u-boot的启动流程逐步修改。修改时应熟悉ARM汇编语言和C语言，同时也应对u-boot启动流程代码有深入的了解。B2板的CPU频率为75MHz、Flash为4Mbit、SDRAM为16Mbit、串口波特率为115200bit/s、环境变量放在EEPROM中。根据两个开发板的不同，需要修改的有:CPU的频率、Flash和SDRAM容量的大小、环境变量的位置等。由于参考板已经有了大部分的代码，因此只需要针对myboard进行相应的修改就可以了。与之相关的文件有/include/config/myboard.h(大部分的宏定义都在这里设置) 、/board/myboard/flash.c Flash的驱动序、/board/myboard/myboard.c(SDRAM的驱动程序) 、/cpu/s3c44b0/serial.c(串口的驱动使能部分) 等。
/include/config/myboard.h是全局宏定义的地方，主要的修改有:
将#define CONFIG_S3C44B0_CLOCK_SPEED 75改为
#define CONFIG_S3C44B0_CLOCK_SPEED 64
将 #define PHYS_SDRAM_1_SIZE 0x01000000 /* 16 MB */ 改为
#define PHYS_SDRAM_1_SIZE 0x00800000 /* 8 MB */;
将 #define PHYS_FLASH_SIZE 0x00400000 /* 4 MB*改为
#define PHYS_FLASH_SIZE 0x00200000 /* 2 MB */;
将 #define CFG_MAX_FLASH_SECT 256 /* max number of sectors on one chip */改为
#define CFG_MAX_FLASH_SECT 35 ;
将 #define CFG_ENV_IS_IN_EEPROM 1 /* use EEPROM for environment vars*/改为
#defineCFG_ENV_IS_IN_FLASH 1
其它(如堆栈的大小等) 可根据需要修改。
由于Flash、SDRAM的容量会发生变化，故应对启动阶段程序在Flash、SDRAM中的位置重新作出安排。笔者将Flash中的u-boot代码放在0x0开始的地方，而将复制到SDRAM中的u-boot代码安排在0xc700000开始的地方。
Flash的修改不仅和容量有关，还和具体型号有关，Flash存储器的烧写和擦除一般不具有通用性，应查看厂家的使用说明书，针对不同型号的存储器作出相应的修改。修改过程中，需要了解Flash擦写特定寄存器的写入地址、数据命令以及扇区的大小和位置，以便进行正确的设置。
SDRAM要修改的地方主要是初始化内存控制器部分，由start.s文件中的 cpuinit crit完成CPU cache的设置，并由board/myboard/memsetup.s中的memsetup完成初始化SDRAM。S3C44B0提供有SDRAM控制器，与一些CPU需要UPM表编程相比，它只需进行相关寄存器的设置修改即可，因而降低了开发的难度。
串口波特率不需要修改(都是115200bit/s) ，直接用B2板的串口驱动即可。串口的设置主要包括初始化串口部分，值得注意的是:串口的波特率与时钟MCLK有很大关系，详见CPU用户手册。
配置好以后，便可以重新编译u-boot代码。将得到的u-boot.bin通过JTAG口下载到目标板后，如果能从串口输出正确的启动信息，就表明移植基本成功。实际过程中会由于考虑不周而需要多次修改。移植成功后，也可以添加一些其它功能(如LCD驱动等) ，在此基础上添加功能相对比较容易。
5 结束语
u-boot是一个功能强大的bootloader开发软件，适用的CPU平台及支持的嵌入式操作系统很多。本文是笔者在实际开发过程中根据相关资料进行摸索，并在成功移植了u-boot的基础上总结出来的。对于不同的CPU和开发板，其基本的方法和步骤是相同的，希望能对相关嵌入式系统的设计人员有所帮助。
Bootloader代码是芯片复位后进入操作系统之前执行的一段代码，主要用于完成由硬件启动到操作系统启动的过渡，从而为操作系统提供基本的运行环境，如初始化CPU、堆栈、存储器系统等。Bootloader 代码与CPU芯片的内核结构、具体型号、应用系统的配置及使用的操作系统等因素有关，其功能类似于PC机的BIOS程序。由于bootloader和CPU及电路板的配置情况有关，因此不可能有通用的bootloader，开发时需要用户根据具体情况进行移植。嵌入式Linux系统中常用的bootloader有armboot、redboot、blob、u-boot等，其中u-boot是当前比较流行、功能比较强大的bootloader，可以支持多种体系结构，但相对也比较复杂。bootloader的实现依赖于CPU的体系结构，大多数bootloader都分为stage 1和stage 2两大部分。Bootloader的基本原理见参考文献。
u-boot是sourceforge网站上的一个开放源代码的项目。它可对PowerPC(MPC5xx、MPC8xx、MPC82xx、MPC7xx、MPC74xx) 、ARM(ARM7、ARM9、StrongARM、Xscale) 、MIPS(4kc、5kc) 、X86等处理器提供支持，支持的嵌入式操作系统有Linux、Vx-Works、NetBSD、QNX、RTEMS、ARTOS、LynxOS等，主要用来开发嵌入式系统初始化代码bootloader。软件的主站点是http://sourceforge.net/projects/u-boot。u-boot最初是由denx(www.denx.de) 的PPC-boot发展而来的，它对PowerPC系列处理器的支持最完善，对Linux操作系统的支持最好。源代码开放的u-boot软件项目经常更新，是学习硬件底层代码开发的很好样例。
2 u-boot系统启动流程
大多数bootloader都分为stage1和stage2两大部分，u-boot也不例外。依赖于CPU体系结构的代码(如设备初始化代码等) 通常都放在stage1，且可以用汇编语言来实现，而stage2则通常用C语言来实现，这样可以实现复杂的功能，而且有更好的可读性和移植性。
2.1 stage1 (start.s代码结构)
u-boot的stage1代码通常放在start.s文件中，它用汇编语言写成，其主要代码部分如下:
(1) 定义入口由于一个可执行的Image必须有一个入口点，并且只能有一个全局入口，通常这个入口放在ROM(Flash) 的0x0地址，因此，必须通知编译器以使其知道这个入口，该工作可通过修改连接器脚本来完成。
(2) 设置异常向量(Exception Vector) 。
(3) 设置CPU的速度、时钟频率及中断控制寄存器。
(4) 初始化内存控制器
(5) 将ROM中的程序复制到RAM中。
(6) 初始化堆栈
(7) 转到RAM中执行，该工作可使用指令ldr pc来完成。
2.2 stage2 C语言代码部分
lib_arm/board.c中的start_armboot是C语言开始的函数，也是整个启动代码中C语言的主函数，同时还是整个u-boot(armboot) 的主函数，该函数主要完成如下操作:
(1) 调用一系列的初始化函数。
(2) 初始化Flash设备。
(3) 初始化系统内存分配函数。
(4) 如果目标系统拥有NAND设备，则初始化NAND设备。
(5) 如果目标系统有显示设备，则初始化该类设备。
(6) 初始化相关网络设备，填写IP、MAC地址等。
(7) 进入命令循环(即整个boot的工作循环) ，接受用户从串口输入的命令，然后进行相应的工作。
3 移植实例
本系统开发板主要由S3C44B0X嵌入式微处理器、2MB的Flash (SST39VF160) 、8MB的SDRAM(HY57V641620) 、4个LED以及ARM JTAG接口组成。该开发板上与S3C44B0X相关部分的功能框图如图1所示。
3.1 u-boot文件下载
u-boot文件的下载有两种方法，第一种是在Linux环境下通过CVS下载最新的文件，方法是:
$ cvs -d :pserver:anonymous@cvs.sourceforge.net:/cvsroot/u-boot login
当要求输入匿名登录的密码时，可直接按回车键
$ cvs -z6 -d :pserver:anonymous@cvs.sourceforge.net:/cvsroot/u-boot co -P modulename
第二种是通过ftp://ftp.denx.de/pub/u-boot/下载正式发布的压缩文件。
3.2 u-boot文件的结构
初次下载的文件有很多，解压后存放在u-boot文件目录下，具体内容已在readme文件中做了详细的介绍，其中与移植相关的主要文件夹有:
(1) cpu/ 它的每个子文件夹里都有如下文件:
makefile
config.mk
cpu.c 和处理器相关的代码
interrupts.c 中断处理代码
serial.c 串口初始化代码
start.s 全局开始启动代码
(2) board/ 它的每个子文件夹里都有如下文件:
makefile
config.mk
smdk2410.c 和板子相关的代码(以smdk2410为例)
flash.c Flash操作代码
memsetup.s 初始化SDRAM代码
u-boot.lds 对应的连接文件
(3) lib_arm/ 体系结构下的相关实现代码，比如memcpy等的汇编语言的优化实现。
3.3 交叉编译环境的建立
要得到下载到目标板的u-boot二进制启动代码，还需要对下载的u-boot1.1.1进行编译。u-boot的编译一般在Linux系统下进行，可用arm-linux-gcc进行编译。一步一步建立交叉编译环境通常比较复杂，最简单的方法是使用别人编译好的交叉编译工具，方法如下:
(1) 在http://handhelds.org/download/toolchain下载arm-linux-gcc-3.3.2.tar.bz2
(2) 以用户名root登录，将arm-linux-gcc-3.3.2.tar.bz2 解压到 /root目录下
# tar jxvf arm-linux-gcc-3.3.2.tar.bz2
(3) 在http://handhelds.org/download/toolchain下载arm-linux-toolchain-post-2.2.13.tar.gz，只是用了它的头文件而已，主要来自内核/linux-x.x/include下
(4) 将arm-linux-toolchain-post-2.2. 13.tar.gz 解压到/skiff/local/ 下
# tar zxvf arm-linux-toolchain-post-2.2.13.tar.gz
(5) 拷贝头文件到/root/usr/3.3.2/arm-linux/ 下，然后删除/skiff
# cp -dR /skiff/local/arm-linux/include /root/usr/3.3.2/arm-linux
# rm -fr /skiff
这样就建立了armlinux 交叉编译环境。
(6) 增加/root/usr/local/arm/3.3.2/bin到路径环境变量
# export PATH=$PATH:/root/usr/local/arm/3.3.2/bin
可以检查路径变量是否设置正确。
# echo $PATH
3.4 移植的预先编译
移植u-boot到新的开发板上仅需要修改与硬件相关的部分即可。主要包括两个层面的移植，第一层是针对CPU的移植，第二层是针对board的移植。由于u-boot1.1.1里面已经包含S3C44B0的移植，所以笔者对板子myboard的移植主要是针对board的移植。移植之前需要仔细阅读u-boot目录下的README文件，其中对如何移植做了简要的介绍。为了减少移植的工作量，可以在include/config目录下选一个和要移植的硬件相似的开发板，笔者选的是b2开发板。具体步骤如下:
(1) u-boot 1.1.1 下的cpu文件夹里已经包括了s3c44b0的目录，其下已经有start.s、interrupts.c以及cpu.c、serial.c几个文件，因而不需要建立与cpu相关的目录。
(2) 在board目录下创建myboard目录以及my-board.c、flash.c、memsetup.s和u-boot.lds等文件。不需要从零开始创建，只需选择一个相似的目录直接复制过来，然后修改文件名及内容即可。笔者在移植u-boot过程中选择的是u-boot1.1.1/board/dave/B2目录。
(3) 在include/configs目录下添加myboard.h，在这里可放入全局的宏定义等，也不需要从头创建，可以在include/configs目录下寻找相似的CPU的头文件进行复制，这里笔者用的是B2.h文件来进行相关的修改。
(4) 对u-boot根目录下的Makefile文件进行修改，加入
myboard_config: unconfig
@$(MKCONFIG) $(@:_config=) arm s3c44b0 myboard
(5) 修改u-boot根目录下的Makefile文件，加入对板子的申明。然后在Makefile中加入myboard
LIST_ ARM7 = "B2 ep7312 impa7 myboard"
(6) 运行make clobber，删除错误的depend文件。
(7) 运行make myboard config。
(8) 执行到此处即表示整个软件的makefile已建立，这时可修改生成的makefile中的交叉编译选项，然后打开makefile 文件，并找到其中的语句:
ifeq($(ARCH) , arm)
CROSS_COMPILE=arm-linux-
end if
接着将其改成
ifeq($(ARCH) ,arm)
CROSS COMPILE=/root/usr/local/3.3.2/bin/arm-linux-
end if
这一步和上面的设置环境变量只要有一个就可以了。
执行make，报告有一个错误，修改myboard/flash.c中的#include "../common/flash.c"为"u-boot/board/dave/common/flash.c"，重新编译即可通过。
4 移植时的具体修改要点
若预先编译没有错误就可以开始硬件相关代码的移植，首先必须要对移植的硬件有清楚地了解，如CPU、CPU的控制寄存器及启动各阶段程序在Flash SDRAM中的布局等。
笔者在移植过程中先修改/include/config/my-board.h头文件中的大部分参数(大部分的宏定义都在这里设置) ，然后按照u-boot的启动流程逐步修改。修改时应熟悉ARM汇编语言和C语言，同时也应对u-boot启动流程代码有深入的了解。B2板的CPU频率为75MHz、Flash为4Mbit、SDRAM为16Mbit、串口波特率为115200bit/s、环境变量放在EEPROM中。根据两个开发板的不同，需要修改的有:CPU的频率、Flash和SDRAM容量的大小、环境变量的位置等。由于参考板已经有了大部分的代码，因此只需要针对myboard进行相应的修改就可以了。与之相关的文件有/include/config/myboard.h(大部分的宏定义都在这里设置) 、/board/myboard/flash.c Flash的驱动序、/board/myboard/myboard.c(SDRAM的驱动程序) 、/cpu/s3c44b0/serial.c(串口的驱动使能部分) 等。
/include/config/myboard.h是全局宏定义的地方，主要的修改有:
将#define CONFIG_S3C44B0_CLOCK_SPEED 75改为
#define CONFIG_S3C44B0_CLOCK_SPEED 64
将 #define PHYS_SDRAM_1_SIZE 0x01000000 /* 16 MB */ 改为
#define PHYS_SDRAM_1_SIZE 0x00800000 /* 8 MB */;
将 #define PHYS_FLASH_SIZE 0x00400000 /* 4 MB*改为
#define PHYS_FLASH_SIZE 0x00200000 /* 2 MB */;
将 #define CFG_MAX_FLASH_SECT 256 /* max number of sectors on one chip */改为
#define CFG_MAX_FLASH_SECT 35 ;
将 #define CFG_ENV_IS_IN_EEPROM 1 /* use EEPROM for environment vars*/改为
#defineCFG_ENV_IS_IN_FLASH 1
其它(如堆栈的大小等) 可根据需要修改。
由于Flash、SDRAM的容量会发生变化，故应对启动阶段程序在Flash、SDRAM中的位置重新作出安排。笔者将Flash中的u-boot代码放在0x0开始的地方，而将复制到SDRAM中的u-boot代码安排在0xc700000开始的地方。
Flash的修改不仅和容量有关，还和具体型号有关，Flash存储器的烧写和擦除一般不具有通用性，应查看厂家的使用说明书，针对不同型号的存储器作出相应的修改。修改过程中，需要了解Flash擦写特定寄存器的写入地址、数据命令以及扇区的大小和位置，以便进行正确的设置。
SDRAM要修改的地方主要是初始化内存控制器部分，由start.s文件中的 cpuinit crit完成CPU cache的设置，并由board/myboard/memsetup.s中的memsetup完成初始化SDRAM。S3C44B0提供有SDRAM控制器，与一些CPU需要UPM表编程相比，它只需进行相关寄存器的设置修改即可，因而降低了开发的难度。
串口波特率不需要修改(都是115200bit/s) ，直接用B2板的串口驱动即可。串口的设置主要包括初始化串口部分，值得注意的是:串口的波特率与时钟MCLK有很大关系，详见CPU用户手册。
配置好以后，便可以重新编译u-boot代码。将得到的u-boot.bin通过JTAG口下载到目标板后，如果能从串口输出正确的启动信息，就表明移植基本成功。实际过程中会由于考虑不周而需要多次修改。移植成功后，也可以添加一些其它功能(如LCD驱动等) ，在此基础上添加功能相对比较容易。
5 结束语
u-boot是一个功能强大的bootloader开发软件，适用的CPU平台及支持的嵌入式操作系统很多。本文是笔者在实际开发过程中根据相关资料进行摸索，并在成功移植了u-boot的基础上总结出来的。对于不同的CPU和开发板，其基本的方法和步骤是相同的，希望能对相关嵌入式系统的设计人员有所帮助。
2008年9月3日星期三
优先级反转+解决方案 【转】
1. 优先级反转(Priority Inversion)
由于多进程共享资源，具有最高优先权的进程被低优先级进程阻塞，反而使具有中优先级的进程先于高优先级的进程执行，导致系统的崩溃。这就是所谓的优先级反转(Priority Inversion)。
2. 产生原因
其实,优先级反转是在高优级(假设为A)的任务要访问一个被低优先级任务(假设为C)占有的资源时,被阻塞.而此时又有优先级高于占有资源的任务(C)而低于被阻塞的任务(A)的优先级的任务(假设为B)时,于是,占有资源的任务就被挂起(占有的资源仍为它占有),因为占有资源的任务优先级很低,所以,它可能一直被另外的任务挂起.而它占有的资源也就一直不能释放,这样,引起任务A一直没办法执行.而比它优先低的任务却可以执行.
所以,一个解决办法就是提高占有资源任务的优先级,让它正常执行,然后释放资源,以让任务A能正常获取资源而得以执行.
3. 解决方案 ( 优先级继承 / 优先级天花板 )
目前解决优先级反转有许多种方法。其中普遍使用的有2种方法：一种被称作优先级继承(priority inheritance)；另一种被称作优先级极限(priority ceilings)。
A. 优先级继承(priority inheritance)
优先级继承是指将低优先级任务的优先级提升到等待它所占有的资源的最高优先级任务的优先级.当高优先级任务由于等待资源而被阻塞时,此时资源的拥有者的优先级将会自动被提升.
B. 优先级天花板(priority ceilings)
优先级天花板是指将申请某资源的任务的优先级提升到可能访问该资源的所有任务中最高优先级任务的优先级.(这个优先级称为该资源的优先级天花板)
A 和B的区别:
优先级继承,只有当占有资源的低优先级的任务被阻塞时,才会提高占有资源任务的优先级,而优先级天花板,不论是否发生阻塞,都提升.
由于多进程共享资源，具有最高优先权的进程被低优先级进程阻塞，反而使具有中优先级的进程先于高优先级的进程执行，导致系统的崩溃。这就是所谓的优先级反转(Priority Inversion)。
2. 产生原因
其实,优先级反转是在高优级(假设为A)的任务要访问一个被低优先级任务(假设为C)占有的资源时,被阻塞.而此时又有优先级高于占有资源的任务(C)而低于被阻塞的任务(A)的优先级的任务(假设为B)时,于是,占有资源的任务就被挂起(占有的资源仍为它占有),因为占有资源的任务优先级很低,所以,它可能一直被另外的任务挂起.而它占有的资源也就一直不能释放,这样,引起任务A一直没办法执行.而比它优先低的任务却可以执行.
所以,一个解决办法就是提高占有资源任务的优先级,让它正常执行,然后释放资源,以让任务A能正常获取资源而得以执行.
3. 解决方案 ( 优先级继承 / 优先级天花板 )
目前解决优先级反转有许多种方法。其中普遍使用的有2种方法：一种被称作优先级继承(priority inheritance)；另一种被称作优先级极限(priority ceilings)。
A. 优先级继承(priority inheritance)
优先级继承是指将低优先级任务的优先级提升到等待它所占有的资源的最高优先级任务的优先级.当高优先级任务由于等待资源而被阻塞时,此时资源的拥有者的优先级将会自动被提升.
B. 优先级天花板(priority ceilings)
优先级天花板是指将申请某资源的任务的优先级提升到可能访问该资源的所有任务中最高优先级任务的优先级.(这个优先级称为该资源的优先级天花板)
A 和B的区别:
优先级继承,只有当占有资源的低优先级的任务被阻塞时,才会提高占有资源任务的优先级,而优先级天花板,不论是否发生阻塞,都提升.
2008年8月28日星期四
vocabulary of voa special english
PARTS OF SPEECH
n. (noun) - a name word
v. (verb) - an action word
ad. (adjective/adverb) - a describing word
prep. (preposition) - a word used to show a relation
pro. (pronoun) - a word used in place of a noun
conj. (conjunction) - a joining word
A
a (an) - ad. one; any; each
able - v. having the power to do something
about - ad. almost ("about half"); of or having a relation to ("We talk about the
weather.")
above - ad. at a higher place
accept - v. to agree to receive
accident - n. something that happens by chance or mistake; an unplanned event
accuse - v. to say a person is responsible for an act or crime; to make a statement
against someone
across - ad. from side to side; to the other side
act - v. to do something
activist - n. one who seeks change through action
actor - n. someone acting in a play or show
add - v. to put (something) with another to make it larger; to say more
administration - n. the executive part of a government, usually headed by a
president or prime minister
admit - v. to accept ("admitted to the United Nations"); to express one's guilt or
responsibility ("He admitted that what he did was wrong.")
adult - n. a grown person
advise - v. to help with information, knowledge or ideas in making a decision
affect - v. to produce an effect on; to influence ("A lack of sleep affected the singer's
performance.")
afraid - ad. feeling fear
after - ad. later; behind
again - ad. another time; as before
against - ad. opposed to; not agreeing with something
age - n. how old a person or thing is
agency - n. an organization that is part of a larger group ("an agency of the United
Nations")
aggression - n. an attack against a person or country; the violation of a country's
borders
ago - ad. of time past; before now
agree - v. to have the same belief as someone; to be willing to do something
agriculture - n. farming
aid - v. to help; to support; n. help, assistance
aim - v. to point a gun at; n. a goal or purpose
air - n. the mixture of gases around the earth, mostly nitrogen and oxygen, that we
breathe
air force - n. a military organization using airplanes
airplane - n. a vehicle with wings that flies
airport - n. a place where airplanes take off and land
album - n. a collection of recorded music
alcohol - n. a strong, colorless liquid, usually made from grain, used as a drug or in
industrial products
alive - ad. having life; not dead
all - ad. everything; everyone; the complete amount
ally - n. a nation or person joined with another for a special purpose
almost - ad. a little less than completely
alone - ad. separated from others
along - ad. near or on ("along the road")
already - ad. before now; even now
also - ad. added to; too
although - conj. even if it is true that
always - ad. at all times; every time
ambassador - n. a nation's highest diplomatic representative (to another
government)
amend - v. to add to or to change (a proposal or law)
ammunition - n. the bullets or shells fired from guns
among - ad. in or part of (a group)
amount - n. the number, size or weight of anything
anarchy - n. a lack of order; lawlessness
ancestor - n. a family member from the past
ancient - ad. very old; long ago
and - conj. also; in addition to; with
anger - n. a strong emotion against someone or something
animal - n. a living creature that moves, such as a dog or cat
anniversary - n. a yearly celebration or observance of an event that happened in the
past
announce - v. to make known publicly; to declare officially
another - ad. one more; a different one
answer - n. a statement produced by a question; v. to make a statement after being
asked a question
any - ad. one or more of no special kind
apologize - v. to express regret for a mistake or accident for which one accepts
responsibility
appeal - v. to take to a higher court, person or group for a decision; to call on
somebody for help
appear - v. to show oneself; to come into sight; to seem
appoint - v. to name; to choose ("appoint a judge")
approve - v. to agree with; to agree to support
archeology - n. the scientific study of past human life and activities
area - n. any place or part of it
argue - v. to offer reasons for or against something; to dispute; to disagree
arms - n. military equipment; weapons
army - n. military ground forces
around - ad. on every side (of)
arrest - v. to seize a person for legal action; to take as a prisoner
arrive - v. to come to a place, especially at the end of a trip
art - n. expressions or creations by humans, such as paintings, music, writing or
statues
artillery - n. big guns
as - conj. equally ("as fast as"); when; while
ash - n. the part left after something burns
ask - v. to question; to say something is wanted ("We ask the teacher questions
every day.")
assist - v. to help
astronaut - n. a person who travels in space
astronomy - n. the scientific study of stars and the universe
asylum - n. political protection given by a government to a person from another
country
at - prep. in or near ("at the edge"); where ("look at"); when ("at noon")
atmosphere - n. the gases surrounding any star or planet
attach - v. to tie together; to connect
attack - n. a violent attempt to damage, injure or kill; v. to start a fight
attempt - v. to work toward something; to try; to make an effort
attend - v. to be present at
automobile - n. a vehicle with wheels used to carry people; a car
autumn - n. the time of the year between summer and winter
average - n. something (a number) representing the middle; ad. common; normal
avoid - v. to stay away from
awake - ad. not sleeping
award - n. an honor or prize for an act or service
away - ad. not near
B
baby - n. a newly born creature
back - n. the part behind the front; ad. the other way from forward
bad - ad. wrong; acting against the law; not good
balance - v. to make two sides or forces equal
ball - n. something round
balloon - n. a device of strong, light material that rises when filled with gas lighter
than air
ballot - n. a piece of paper used for voting
ban - v. to not permit; to stop; n. an official restriction
bank - n. an organization that keeps and lends money
bar - v. to prevent or block
barrier - n. anything that blocks or makes an action difficult
base - n. a military center; v. to establish as a fact ("Her research was based on
experiments.")
battle - n. a fight between opposing armed forces
be - v. to live; to happen; to exist
beat - v. to hit again and again
beauty - ad. that which pleases the eye, ear or spirit
because - prep. for the reason that ("He left because he was sick.")
become - v. to come to be
bed - n. a sleeping place
before - prep. earlier
begin - v. to do the first part of an action; to start
behind - ad. at the back of; in back of
believe - v. to think; to feel sure of; to accept as true; to trust
bell - n. an instrument that makes a musical sound ("a church bell")
belong - v. to be owned by; to be a member of
below - ad. lower than
best - ad. the most good
betray - v. to turn against; to be false to
better - ad. more good than
between - ad. in the space or time that separates; from one to the other ("talks
between two nations")
big - ad. of great size; not small
bill - n. a legislative proposal
biology - n. the scientific study of life or living things in all their forms
bird - n. a creature that flies
bite - v. to cut with the teeth
black - ad. dark; having the color like that of the night sky
blame - v. to accuse; to hold responsible
blanket - n. a cloth cover used to keep warm
bleed - v. to lose blood
blind - ad. not able to see
block - v. to stop something from being done; to prevent movement
blood - n. red fluid in the body
blow - v. to move with force, as in air ("The wind blows.")
blue - ad. having the color like that of a clear sky
boat - n. something built to travel on water that carries people or goods
body - n. all of a person or animal; the remains of a person or animal
boil - v. to heat a liquid until it becomes very hot
bomb - n. a device that explodes with great force; v. to attack or destroy with
bombs
bone - n. the hard material in the body
book - n. a long written work for reading
border - n. a dividing line between nations
born - v. to come to life; to come into existence
borrow - v. to take as a loan
both - ad. not just one of two, but the two together
bottle - n. a container, usually made of glass, to hold liquid
bottom - ad. the lowest part of something
box - n. something to put things into; a container, usually made of paper or wood
boy - n. a young male person
boycott - v. to refuse to take part in or deal with
brain - n. the control center of thought, emotions and body activity of all creatures
brave - ad. having no fear
bread - n. a food made from grain
break - v. to divide into parts by force; to destroy
breathe - v. to take air into the body and let it out again
bridge - n. a structure built over a waterway, valley or road so people and vehicles
can cross from one side to the other
brief - ad. short; not long
bright - ad. giving much light; strong and clear in color
bring - v. to come with something
broadcast - v. to send information, stories or music by radio or television; n. a radio
or television program
brother - n. a male with the same father or mother as another person
brown - ad. having the color like that of coffee
budget - n. a spending plan
build - v. to join materials together to make something
building - n. anything built for use as a house, factory, office, school, store or place
of entertainment
bullet - n. a small piece of metal shot from a gun
burn - v. to be on fire; to destroy or damage by fire
burst - v. to break open suddenly
bury - v. to put into the ground and cover with earth
bus - n. a public vehicle to carry people
business - n. one's work; buying and selling to earn money; trade
busy - ad. doing something; very active
but - conj. however; other than; yet
buy - v. to get by paying something, usually money
by - conj. near; at; next to ("by the road"); from ("a play by William Shakespeare");
not later than ("by midnight")
C
cabinet - n. a group of ministers that helps lead a government
call - v. to give a name to ("I call myself John."); to ask for or request ("They called
for an end to the fighting.")
calm - ad. quiet; peaceful; opposite tense
camera - n. a device for taking pictures
camp - n. a place with temporary housing
campaign - n. a competition by opposing political candidates seeking support from
voters; a connected series of military actions during a war
can - v. to be able to; to have the right to; n. a container used to hold liquid or food,
usually made of metal
cancel - v. to end; to stop
cancer - n. a disease in which dangerous cells grow quickly and destroy parts of the
body
candidate - n. a person who seeks or is nominated for an office or an honor
capital - n. the official center of a government; the city where a country's
government is
capitalism - n. an economic system in which the production of most goods and
services is owned and operated for profit by private citizens or companies
capture - v. to make a person or animal a prisoner; to seize or take by force; to get
control of
car - n. a vehicle with wheels used to carry people; an automobile; a part of a train
care - v. to like; to protect; to feel worry or interest
careful - ad. acting safely; with much thought
carry - v. to take something or someone from one place to another
case (court) - n. a legal action
case (medical) - n. an incident of disease ("There was only one case of chicken pox
at the school.")
cat - n. a small animal that often lives with humans
catch - v. to seize after a chase; to stop and seize with the hands
cause - v. to make happen; n. the thing or person that produces a result
ceasefire - n. a halt in fighting, usually by agreement
celebrate - v. to honor a person or event with special activities
center - n. the middle of something; the place in the middle; a place that is the main
point of an activity
century - n. one hundred years
ceremony - n. an act or series of acts done in a special way established by tradition
chairman - n. a person leading a meeting or an organized group
champion - n. the best; the winner
chance - n. a possibility of winning or losing or that something will happen
change - v. to make different; to become different
charge - v. to accuse someone of something, usually a crime; n. a statement in
which someone is accused of something
chase - v. to run or go after someone or something
cheat - v. to get by a trick; to steal from
cheer - v. to shout approval or praise
chemicals - n. elements found in nature or made by people; substances used in the
science of chemistry
chemistry - n. the scientific study of substances, what they are made of, how they
act under different conditions, and how they form other substances
chief - n. the head or leader of a group; ad. leading; most important
child - n. a baby; a boy or girl
children - n. more than one child
choose - v. to decide between two or more
circle - n. a closed shape that has all its points equally distant from the center, like
an "O"
citizen - n. a person who is a member of a country by birth or by law
city - n. any important large town
civilian - ad. not military
civil rights - n. the political, economic and social rights given equally to all people of
a nation
claim - v. to say something as a fact
clash - n. a battle; v. to fight or oppose
clean - v. to make pure; ad. free from dirt or harmful substances ("clean water")
clear - ad. easy to see or see through; easily understood
clergy - n. a body of officials within a religious organization
climate - n. the normal weather conditions of a place
climb - v. to go up or down something by using the feet and sometimes the hands
clock - n. a device that measures and shows time
close - v. to make something not open; ad. near to
cloth - n. a material made from plants, chemicals, animal hair and other substances
clothes - n. what people wear
cloud - n. a mass of fog high in the sky
coal - n. a solid black substance used as fuel
coalition - n. forces, groups or nations joined together
coast - n. land on the edge of the ocean
coffee - n. a drink made from the plant of the same name
cold - ad. not warm; having or feeling great coolness or a low temperature
collect - v. to bring or gather together in one place; to demand and receive ("collect
taxes")
college - n. a small university
colony - n. land controlled by another country or government
color - n. the different effects of light on the eye, making blue, red, brown, black,
yellow and others
combine - v. to mix or bring together
come - v. to move toward; to arrive
command - v. to order; to have power over something
comment - v. to say something about; to express an opinion about something
committee - n. a group of people given special work
common - ad. usual; same for all ("a common purpose")
communicate - v. to tell; to give or exchange information
community - n. a group of people living together in one place or area
company - n. a business organized for trade, industrial or other purposes
compare - v. to examine what is different or similar
compete - v. to try to do as well as, or better than, another or others
complete - ad. having all parts; ended or finished
complex - ad. of or having many parts that are difficult to understand; not simple
compromise - n. the settlement of an argument where each side agrees to accept
less than first demanded
computer - n. an electronic machine for storing and organizing information, and for
communicating with others
concern - n. interest, worry ("express concern about"); v. to fear ("to be
concerned")
condemn - v. to say a person or action is wrong or bad
condition - n. something declared necessary to complete an agreement; a person's
health
conference - n. a meeting
confirm - v. to approve; to say that something is true
conflict - n. a fight; a battle, especially a long one
congratulate - v. to praise a person or to express pleasure for success or good luck
Congress - n. the organization of people elected to make the laws of the United
States (the House of Representatives and the Senate); a similar organization in
other countries
connect - v. to join one thing to another; to unite; to link
conservative - n. one who usually supports tradition and opposes great change
consider - v. to give thought to; to think about carefully
constitution - n. the written general laws and ideas that form a nation's system of
government
contain - v. to hold; to include
container - n. a box, bottle or can used to hold something
continent - n. any of the seven great land areas of the world
continue - v. to go on doing or being
control - v. to direct; to have power over
convention - n. a large meeting for a special purpose
cook - v. to heat food before eating it
cool - ad. almost cold
cooperate - v. to act or work together
copy - v. to make something exactly like another; n. something made to look exactly
like another
corn - n. a food grain
correct - ad. true; free from mistakes; v. to change to what is right
cost - n. the price or value of something ("The cost of the book is five dollars."); v.
to be valued at ("The book costs five dollars.")
cotton - n. a material made from a plant of the same name
count - v. to speak or add numbers
country - n. a nation; the territory of a nation; land away from cities
court - n. where trials take place; where judges make decisions about law
cover - v. to put something over a person or thing; n. anything that is put over a
person or thing
cow - n. a farm animal used for its milk
crash - v. to fall violently; to hit with great force
create - v. to make; to give life or form to
creature - n. any living being; any animal or human
credit - n. an agreement that payments will be made at a later time
crew - n. a group of people working together
crime - n. an act that violates a law
criminal - n. a person who is responsible for a crime
crisis - n. an extremely important time when something may become much better or
worse; a dangerous situation
criticize - v. to say what is wrong with something or someone; to condemn; to
judge
crops - n. plants that are grown and gathered for food, such as grains, fruits and
vegetables
cross - v. to go from one side to another; to go across
crowd - n. a large number of people gathered in one place
crush - v. to damage or destroy by great weight; to defeat completely
cry - v. to express or show sorrow or pain
culture - n. all the beliefs, traditions and arts of a group or population
cure - v. to improve health; to make well ("The doctor can cure the disease."); n.
something that makes a sick person well ("Antibiotics are a cure for infection.")
curfew - n. an order to people to stay off the streets or to close their businesses
current - n. movement of air, water or electricity; ad. belonging to the present time
("She found the report in a current publication.")
custom - n. a long-established belief or activity of a people
customs - n. taxes on imports
cut - v. to divide or injure with a sharp tool; to make less; to reduce
D
dam - n. a wall built across a river to hold back flowing water
damage - v. to cause injury or destruction; n. harm; hurt or injury, usually to things
dance - v. to move the body and feet to music; n. a series of steps, usually to music
danger - n. a strong chance of suffering injury, damage or loss
dark - ad. having little or no light ("The room was dark.")
date - n. an expression of time; a day, month and year
daughter - n. a person's female child
day - n. twenty-four hours; the hours of sunlight
dead - ad. not living
deaf - ad. not able to hear
deal - v. to have to do with ("The talks will deal with the problem of pollution."); to
buy or sell ("Her company deals in plastic.")
debate - v. to argue for or against something; n. a public discussion or argument
debt - n. something that is owed; the condition of owing
decide - v. to choose; to settle; to judge
declare - v. to say; to make a statement
decrease - v. to make less in size or amount
deep - ad. going far down; a long way from top to bottom
defeat - v. to cause to lose in a battle or struggle; n. a loss; the condition of having
lost
defend - v. to guard or fight against attack; to protect
deficit - n. a shortage that results when spending is greater than earnings, or
imports are greater than exports
define - v. to give the meaning of; to explain
degree - n. a measure of temperature
delay - v. to decide to do something at a later time; to postpone; to cause to be late
delegate - n. one sent to act for another; one who represents another
demand - v. to ask by ordering; to ask with force
democracy - n. the system of government in which citizens vote to choose leaders or
to make other important decisions
demonstrate - v. to make a public show of opinions or feelings ("The crowd
demonstrated in support of human rights."); to explain by using examples ("The
teacher demonstrated the idea with an experiment.")
denounce - v. to accuse of being wrong or evil; to criticize severely
deny - v. to declare that something is not true; to refuse a request
depend - v. to need help and support
deplore - v. to regret strongly; to express sadness
deploy - v. to move forces or weapons into positions for action
depression - n. severe unhappiness; a period of reduced business and economic
activity during which many people lose their jobs
describe - v. to give a word picture of something; to give details of something
desert - n. a dry area of land
design - v. to plan or create plans for
desire - v. to want very much; to wish for
destroy - v. to break into pieces; to end the existence of
detail - n. a small part of something; a small piece of information
develop - v. to grow; to create; to experience progress
device - n. a piece of equipment made for a special purpose
dictator - n. a ruler with complete power
die - v. to become dead; to stop living; to end
diet - n. usual daily food and drink
different - ad. not the same
difficult - ad. not easy; hard to do, make or carry out
dig - v. to make a hole in the ground
dinner - n. the main amount of food eaten at a usual time ("The family had its dinner
at noon."); a special event that includes food ("The official dinner took place at the
White House.")
diplomat - n. a person who represents his or her government in dealing with another
government
direct - v. to lead; to aim or show the way ("He directed me to the theater."); ad.
straight to something; not through some other person or thing ("The path is
direct.")
direction - n. the way (east, west, north, south); where someone or something came
from or went to
dirt - n. earth or soil
disappear - v. to become unseen; to no longer exist
disarm - v. to take away weapons; to no longer keep weapons; to make a bomb
harmless by removing its exploding device
discover - v. to find or learn something
discuss - v. to talk about; to exchange ideas
disease - n. a sickness in living things, often caused by viruses, germs or bacteria
dismiss - v. to send away; to refuse to consider
dispute - v. to oppose strongly by argument; n. an angry debate
dissident - n. a person who strongly disagrees with his or her government
distance - n. the amount of space between two places or objects ("The distance
from my house to your house is two kilometers.")
dive - v. to jump into water head first
divide - v. to separate into two or more parts
do - v. to act; to make an effort
doctor - n. a person trained in medicine to treat sick people
document - n. an official piece of paper with facts written on it, used as proof or
support of something
dog - n. a small animal that often lives with humans
dollar - n. United States money, one hundred cents
door - n. an opening for entering or leaving a building or room
down - ad. from higher to lower; in a low place
dream - v. to have a picture or story in the mind during sleep; n. a picture or story in
the mind during sleep; a happy idea about the future
drink - v. to take liquid into the body through the mouth
drive - v. to control a moving vehicle
drop - v. to fall or let fall; to go lower
drown - v. to die under water
drug - n. anything used as a medicine or in making medicine; a chemical substance
used to ease pain or to affect the mind
dry - ad. not wet; without rain
during - ad. through the whole time; while (something is happening)
dust - n. pieces of matter so small that they can float in the air
duty - n. one's job or responsibility; what one must do because it is right and just
E
each - ad. every one by itself
early - ad. at or near the beginning, especially the beginning of the day; opposite
late
earn - v. to be paid in return for work done
earth - n. the planet we all live on; the ground or soil
earthquake - n. a sudden, violent shaking of the earth's surface
ease - v. to reduce; to make less difficult
east - n. the direction from which the sun rises
easy - ad. not difficult; not hard to do
eat - v. to take food into the body through the mouth
ecology - n. the scientific study of the environment and links among living and
material things
economy - n. the system by which money, industry and trade are organized
edge - n. the line where something ends or begins
education - n. the act of teaching
effect - n. the result or change caused by something ("The storm had a serious
effect on the economy.")
effort - n. an attempt; the work necessary to do something
egg - n. the rounded object containing unborn young produced by female birds, fish
or reptiles; a single cell in a female person or animal that can develop into a baby
either - ad. one of two, but not the other
elect - v. to choose by voting
electricity - n. a form of energy that flows through wires to provide heat and light,
and power to machines
embassy - n. the offices of an ambassador and his or her assistants
emergency - n. an unexpected and dangerous situation demanding quick action
emotion - n. a strong feeling such as love, hate, fear or sadness
employ - v. to give work in return for wages
empty - ad. having nothing inside; v. to remove everything
end - v. to stop; to finish; n. the part which comes last
enemy - n. a person opposing or hating another; a person or people of the other side
in a war
energy - n. power used to do work, usually with machines; the ability and
willingness to be active
enforce - v. to make something be done
engine - n. a machine that uses energy to cause movement or to do work
engineer - n. a person who designs engines, machines, roads, bridges or railroads
enjoy - v. to be pleased or satisfied by something
enough - ad. as much as necessary; pro. the amount needed
enter - v. to come or go into
environment - n. all surrounding things, conditions and influences that affect life;
the natural world of land, sea, air, plants and animals
equal - ad. the same in amount, size, weight or value; having the same rights
equipment - n. things, tools or machines needed for a purpose or activity
escape - v. to get free; to get away from; to get out of
especially - ad. more than others ("We liked the food, especially the fish.")
establish - v. to bring into existence; to create
estimate - v. to form an opinion about a value, size or amount using less than
complete information
ethnic - ad. of or concerning people belonging to a large group because of their race,
religion, language, tribe or where their ancestors lived
evaporate - v. to change from a liquid into a gas
even - ad. in a way not thought possible ("They survived, even though the building
was destroyed.")
event - n. that which happens, especially something of importance
ever - ad. at any time
every - ad. each one; all
evidence - n. material or facts that prove something; a reason for believing
evil - ad. not good; extremely bad
exact - ad. having no mistakes; correct in every detail
examine - v. to study closely
example - n. a part that shows what the rest of a thing or group is like
excellent - ad. extremely good
except - prep. but for
exchange - v. to trade; to give or receive one thing for another
excuse - v. to take away blame; to pardon; to forgive; n. a reason (sometimes false)
for an action
execute - v. to kill
exercise - n. an activity or effort for the purpose of improving the body or to stay in
good health
exile - v. to force a person to leave his or her country; to expel; n. a person who is
forced to leave his or her country
exist - v. to be; to live
expand - v. to make larger; to grow larger
expect - v. to think or believe that something will happen; to wait for an event
expel - v. to force out; to remove from; to send away
experience - v. to live through an event, situation or condition ("She experienced
great pain."); n. something that one has done or lived through ("The experience
caused her great pain.")
experiment - v. to test; n. a test or trial carried out to prove if an idea is true or
false, or to discover something
expert - n. a person with special knowledge or training
explain - v. to give reasons for; to make clear; to tell about; to tell the meaning
explode - v. to break apart violently with a loud noise, like a bomb
explore - v. to travel in a place that is not well known to learn more about it; to
make a careful search; to examine closely
export - v. to send to another country; n. something sent to another country, usually
for sale
express - v. to say clearly
extend - v. to stretch out in area or length; to continue for a longer time
extra - ad. more than normal, expected or necessary
extreme - ad. more than the usual or accepted
extremist - n. a person with strong religious or political beliefs who acts in an
extreme or violent way
F
face - n. the front of the head: eyes, nose, mouth; v. to look toward; to turn toward;
to have before you, such as a problem or danger
fact - n. something known or proved to be true
factory - n. a building or group of buildings where goods are made
fail - v. to not succeed; to not reach a goal
fair - ad. just; honest; what is right
fall - v. to go down quickly; to come down; to drop to the ground or a lower position
false - ad. not true; not correct
family - n. the group that includes children and their parents
famous - ad. known very well to many people
far - ad. at, to or from a great distance
farm - n. land used to grow crops and animals for food
fast - ad. moving or working at great speed; quick
fat - n. tissue in the bodies of humans and animals used to store energy and to keep
warm; ad. thick; heavy
father - n. the male parent; a man who has a child or children
fear - v. to be afraid; to worry that something bad is near or may happen ("He
feared falling down."); n. a strong emotion when there is danger or trouble ("He had
a fear that he would fall down.")
federal - ad. of or having to do with a national or central government
feed - v. to give food to
feel - v. to have or experience an emotion; to know by touching
female - n. a woman or girl; the sex that gives birth; ad. of or about women
fence - n. something around an area of land to keep animals or people in or out
fertile - ad. rich in production of plants or animals; producing much
few - ad. not many; a small number of
field - n. an area of open land, usually used to grow crops or to raise animals
fierce - ad. extremely strong; violent; angry
fight - v. to use violence or force; to attempt to defeat or destroy an enemy; n. the
use of force; a battle
fill - v. to put or pour something into a container until there is space for no more
film - v. to record something so it can be seen again; to make a motion picture or
movie; n. a thin piece of material for making pictures with a camera; a movie
final - ad. at the end; last
financial - ad. of or about the system that includes the use of money, credit,
investments and banks
find - v. to discover or learn something by searching or by accident; to decide a
court case ("The jury finds the man guilty of murder.")
fine - n. a payment ordered by a court to punish someone for a crime; ad. very good;
very small or thin
finish - v. to complete; to end
fire - v. to shoot a gun; n. the heat and light produced by something burning
fireworks - n. rockets producing bright fire in the sky, used in holiday celebrations
firm - ad. not easily moved or changed ("She is firm in her opinion.")
first - ad. coming before all others
fish - n. a creature that lives and can breathe in water
fit - v. to be of the correct size or shape ("These shoes fit my feet.")
fix - v. to make good or right again
flag - n. a piece of colored cloth used to represent a nation, government or
organization
flat - ad. smooth; having no high places
flee - v. to run away from
float - v. to be on water without sinking; to move or be moved gently on water or
through air
flood - v. to cover with water; n. the movement of water out of a river, lake or ocean
onto land
floor - n. the bottom part of a room for walking on ("The book fell to the floor."); the
level of a building ("The fire was on the first floor.")
flow - v. to move like a liquid
flower - n. the colored part of plants that carry seeds
fluid - n. any substance that can flow, such as a liquid
fly - v. to move through the air with wings, like a bird or airplane; to travel in an
airplane or flying vehicle
fog - n. a mass of wet air that is difficult to see through; a cloud close to the ground
follow - v. to come or go after; to accept the rule or power of; to obey
food - n. that which is taken in by all living things for energy, strength and growth
fool - v. to make someone believe something that is not true; to trick; n. a person
who is tricked easily
foot - n. the bottom part of the leg; the part of the body that touches the ground
when a person or animal walks
for - prep. because of ("He is famous for his work."); in exchange ("Give me one
dollar for the book."); through space or time ("They travelled for one hour.");
representative of ("I speak for all people."); to be employed by ("She works for a
computer company.")
force - v. to make someone do something or make something happen by using
power; n. power, strength; strength used against a person or object; military power
of a nation; a military group
foreign - ad. of, about or from another nation; not from one's own place or country
forest - n. a place of many trees
forget - v. to not remember
forgive - v. to pardon; to excuse; to remove guilt
form - v. to make; to start; to shape ("They formed a swim team."); n. a kind
("Swimming is a form of exercise.")
former - ad. earlier in time; not now
forward - ad. the direction in front of; toward the front
free - v. to release; ad. not controlled by another or by outside forces; not in prison;
independent; not limited by rules; without cost
freedom - n. the condition of being free
freeze - v. to cause or to become very cold; to make or to become hard by cold
fresh - ad. newly made or gathered; recent
friend - n. a person one likes and trusts
frighten - v. to cause great fear
from - prep. having a person, place or thing as a beginning or cause ("It is a
message from the president."); at a place distant, not near ("The school is five
kilometers from my home."); because of ("He is suffering from cancer.")
front - n. the forward part; the opposite of back; the beginning; the first part
fruit - n. food from trees and plants
fuel - n. any substance burned to create heat or power
full - ad. containing as much as a person or thing can hold; complete
fun - n. anything that is pleasing and causes happiness
funeral - n. a ceremony held in connection with the burial or burning of the dead
future - n. time after now ("We can talk about it in the future."); ad. in the time to
come ("All future meetings will be held in this room.")
G
gain - v. to get possession of; to get more; to increase
game - n. an activity with rules in which people or teams play or compete, usually
sports
gas - n. any substance that is not solid or liquid; any substance that burns to provide
heat, light or power
gather - v. to bring or come together into a group or place; to collect
general - n. a high military leader; ad. without details; affecting or including all or
almost all
gentle - ad. soft; kind; not rough or violent
get - v. to receive; to gain; to go and bring back; to become; to become the owner
of
gift - n. something given without cost
girl - n. a young female person
give - v. to present to another to keep without receiving payment
glass - n. a hard, clear material that is easily broken, used most often for windows
or for containers to hold liquids
go - v. to move from one place to another; to leave
goal - n. that toward which an effort is directed; that which is aimed at; the end of a
trip or race
god - n. the spirit that is honored as creator of all things ("They believe in God."); a
spirit or being believed in many religions to have special powers
gold - n. a highly valued yellow metal
good - ad. pleasing; helpful; kind; correct; not bad
goods - n. things owned or made to be sold
govern - v. to control; to rule by military or political power
government - n. a system of governing; the organization of people that rules a
country, city or area
grain - n. the seed of grass plants used for food, such as wheat, rice and corn; those
plants that produce the seeds
granddaughter - n. the daughter of a person's daughter or son
grandfather - n. the father of a person's father or mother
grandmother - n. the mother of a person's father or mother
grandson - n. the son of a person's daughter or son
grass - n. a plant with long, narrow, green leaves
gray - ad. having the color like that made by mixing black and white
great - ad. very large or more than usual in size or number; very good; important
green - ad. having the color like that made by mixing yellow and blue; having the
color like that of growing leaves and grass
grind - v. to reduce to small pieces by crushing
ground - n. land; the earth's surface; soil
group - n. a number of people or things together; a gathering of people working for
a common purpose
grow - v. to develop or become bigger; to increase in size or amount
guarantee - v. to promise a result; to promise that something will happen
guard - v. to watch and protect a person, place or thing ("He guards the
president."); n. a person or thing that watches or protects ("He is a prison guard.")
guerrilla - n. a person who fights as part of an unofficial army, usually against an
official army or police
guide - v. to lead to; to show the way; n. one who shows the way
guilty - ad. having done something wrong or in violation of a law; responsible for a
bad action
gun - n. a weapon that shoots bullets
H
hair - n. the fine material that grows from the skin, especially from the head
half - n. one of two equal parts of something
halt - v. to come or cause to come to a stop; to stop
hang - v. to place something so the highest part is supported and the lower part is
not; to kill by hanging
happen - v. to become a fact or event; to take place
happy - ad. pleased; satisfied; feeling good; not sad
hard - ad. not easily cut or broken; solid; difficult to do or understand; needing much
effort or force
harm - v. to injure; to damage; n. damage; hurt
harvest - v. to gather crops; n. the crop after it is gathered
hat - n. a head cover
hate - v. to have strong emotions against; to consider as an enemy; opposite love
have - v. to possess; to own; to hold
he - pro. the boy or man who is being spoken about
head - v. to lead; to command; n. leader; chief; the top part of something; the
highest position
headquarters - n. the center from which orders are given; the main offices of a
business or organization
heal - v. to return to good health; to cure; to become well
health - n. the general condition of the body and mind; the condition of being free
from sickness or disease
hear - v. to receive sound through the ears; to receive news about
heat - v. to make hot or warm; n. great warmth; that which is produced by burning
fuel; energy from the sun
heavy - ad. having much weight; not easy to lift; of great amount or force
helicopter - n. a machine without wings that can fly up or down or remain in one
place above the ground
help - v. to give support; to assist; to make easier; n. support; aid
here - ad. in, to or at this place
hero - n. a person honored for being brave or wise
hide - v. to prevent from being seen or found; to make secret
high - ad. tall; far up; far above the ground; important; above others
hijack - v. to seize or take control of a vehicle by force
hill - n. a small mountain
history - n. the written record or description of past events; the study of the past
hit - v. to strike; to touch with force
hold - v. to carry or support, usually in the hands or arms; to keep in one position;
to keep as a prisoner; to contain; to possess; to occupy; to organize and be involved
in ("The two sides hold talks this week.")
hole - n. an opening; a torn or broken place in something
holiday - n. a day when one does not work; a day on which no work is done to honor
or remember a person or event
holy - ad. greatly honored in religion
home - n. the building where a person lives, especially with family; the place where
one was born or comes from; the area or country where one lives
honest - ad. truthful; able to be trusted
honor - v. to obey; to show strong, good feelings for ("to honor one's parents"); n.
an award; an act of giving special recognition ("He received many honors for his
efforts to help others.")
hope - v. to expect; to believe there is a good chance that something will happen as
wanted; to want something to happen
horrible - ad. causing great fear; terrible
horse - n. a large animal often used for racing, riding or farm work
hospital - n. a place where sick or injured people are given medical care
hostage - n. a person captured and held as a guarantee that a demand or promise
will be honored
hostile - ad. ready to fight; ready for war
hot - ad. having or feeling great heat or a high temperature
hotel - n. a building with rooms, and often food, for travellers
hour - n. a measure of time; sixty minutes
house - n. a building in which people live; a country's parliament or lawmaking
group ("House of Representatives")
how - ad. in what way; to what amount
however - conj. yet; but
huge - ad. very big; of great size
human - ad. of or about people
humor - n. the ability to understand, enjoy or express what makes people laugh
hunger - n. the need for food
hunt - v. to search for animals to capture or kill them; to seek; to try to find
hurry - v. to do or go fast
hurt - v. to cause pain, injury or damage
husband - n. a man who is married
I
I - pro. the person speaking
ice - n. frozen water
idea - n. a thought or picture in the mind; a belief
identify - v. to recognize someone or something and to say who or what they are
if - conj. on condition; provided that ("I will go if you go.")
illegal - ad. not legal; in violation of a law
imagine - v. to make a picture in the mind; to form an idea
immediate - ad. without delay; very near in time or place
import - v. to bring from another country; n. something brought from another
country, usually for sale
important - ad. having great meaning, value or power
improve - v. to make better; to become better
in - prep. inside; held by; contained by; surrounded by; during
incident - n. an event or something that happens
incite - v. to urge or cause an action or emotion, usually something bad or violent
include - v. to have; to make a part of
increase - v. to make more in size or amount
independent - ad. not influenced by or controlled by another or others; free;
separate
individual - n. one person
industry - n. any business that produces goods or provides services; the work and
related activity in factories and offices; all organizations involved in manufacturing
infect - v. to make sick with something that causes disease
inflation - n. a continuing rise in prices while the value of money goes down
influence - v. to have an effect on someone or something; to cause change
inform - v. to tell; to give knowledge to
information - n. knowledge; facts
inject - v. to force a fluid into, such as putting medicine or drugs into the body
through the skin
injure - v. to cause harm or damage to a person or animal
innocent - ad. not guilty of a crime; not responsible for a bad action
insane - ad. mentally sick
insect - n. a very small creature, usually with many legs and sometimes with wings
inspect - v. to look at something carefully; to examine, especially by an expert
instead - ad. in the place of; taking the place of
instrument - n. a tool or device designed to do something or to make something
insult - v. to say something or to do something that makes another person angry or
dishonored
intelligence - n. the ability to think or learn; information gathered by spying
intelligent - ad. quick to understand or learn
intense - ad. very strong; extremely serious
interest - n. what is important to someone ("He acted to protect his interests." "She
had a great interest in painting."); a share in owning a business; money paid for the
use of money borrowed
interfere - v. to get in the way of; to work against; to take part in the activities of
others, especially when not asked to do so
international - ad. of or about more than one nation or many nations; of the whole
world
intervene - v. to come between; to come between in order to settle or solve
invade - v. to enter an area or country by force with an army
invent - v. to plan and make something never made before; to create a new thing or
way of doing something
invest - v. to give money to a business or organization with the hope of making
more money
investigate - v. to study or examine all information about an event, situation or
charge; to search for the truth
invite - v. to ask someone to take part in or join an event, organization or gathering
involve - v. to take part in; to become a part of; to include
iron - n. a strong, hard metal used to make machines and tools
island - n. a land area with water all around it
issue - n. an important problem or subject that people are discussing or arguing
about
it - pro. a thing, place, event or idea that is being spoken about ("The sky is blue,
but it also has a few white clouds.")
J
jail - n. a prison for those waiting to be tried for a crime or for those serving sentences
for crimes that are not serious
jewel - n. a valuable stone, such as a diamond or emerald
job - n. the work that one does to earn money
join - v. to put together or come together; to become part of or a member of
joint - ad. shared by two or more
joke - n. something done or said to cause others to laugh
judge - v. to form an opinion about; to decide a question, especially a legal one; n. a
public official who decides problems of law in a court
jump - v. to push down on the
feet and move up quickly into the air
jury - n. a group of people chosen to decide what is true in a trial
just - ad. only ("Help me for just a minute."); very shortly before or after the
present ("He just left."); at the same time ("He left just as I came in."); what is
right or fair ("The law is just, in my opinion.")
K
keep - v. to possess; to have for oneself
kick - v. to hit with the foot
kidnap - v. to seize and take away by force
kill - v. to make dead; to cause to die
kind - n. sort ("What kind of dog is that?"); ad. gentle; caring; helpful
kiss - v. to touch with the mouth to show love or honor
knife - n. a tool or weapon used to cut
know - v. to understand something as correct; to have the facts about; to recognize
someone because you have met and talked together before
knowledge - n. that which is known; learning or understanding
L
labor - n. work; workers as a group
laboratory - n. a room or place where experiments in science are done
lack - v. to be without; n. the condition of needing, wanting or not having
lake - n. a large area of fresh water surrounded by land
land - v. to come to the earth from the air ("Airplanes land at airports."); n. the part
of the earth not covered by water; the ground
language - n. words and their use; what people speak in a country, nation or group
large - ad. big; being of more than usual size, amount or number; opposite small
last - v. to continue ("The talks will last three days."); ad. after all others; the only
one remaining ("She is the last person in line.")
late - ad. after the correct time; near the end; opposite early
laugh - v. to make sounds to express pleasure or happy feelings
launch - v. to put into operation; to begin; to send into the air or space
law - n. all or any rules made by a government
lead - v. to show the way; to command; to control; to go first
leak - v. to come out of or to escape through a small opening or hole (usually a gas
or liquid)
learn - v. to get knowledge about; to come to know a fact or facts
leave - v. to go away from; to let something stay where it is
left - ad. on the side that is toward the west when one is facing north; opposite
right
legal - ad. of or in agreement with the law
legislature - n. a government lawmaking group
lend - v. to permit someone to use a thing temporarily; to make a loan of money
less - ad. smaller in amount; not as much
let - v. to permit to do or to be; to make possible
letter - n. a message written on paper; a communication in writing sent to another
person
level - n. the amount or height that something reaches or rises to; the position of
something or someone
liberal - ad. one who usually supports social progress or change
lie - v. to have one's body on the ground or other surface; to say something that one
knows is not true
life - n. the time between being born and dying; opposite death; all living things
lift - v. to take or bring up to a higher place or level
light - n. a form of energy that affects the eyes so that one is able to see; anything
that produces light; ad. bright; clear; not heavy
lightning - n. light produced by electricity in the air, usually during a storm
like - v. to be pleased with; to have good feelings for someone or something; ad. in
the same way as; similar to
limit - v. to restrict to a number or amount; n. the greatest amount or number
permitted
line - n. a long, thin mark on a surface; a number of people or things organized; one
after another; the edge of an area protected by military forces
link - v. to connect; to unite one thing or event with another; n. a relation between
two or more things, situations or events
liquid - n. a substance that is not a solid or gas, and can move freely, like water
list - v. to put in writing a number of names of people or things; n. a written series
of names or things
listen - v. to try to hear
literature - n. all the poems, stories and writings of a period of time or of a country
little - ad. not tall or big; a small amount
live - v. to have life; to exist; ad. having life; alive
load - v. to put objects on or into a vehicle or container; n. that which is carried
loan - n. money borrowed that usually must be returned with interest payments;
something borrowed
local - ad. about or having to do with one place
lonely - ad. feeling alone and wanting friends; visited by few or no people ("a lonely
man")
long - ad. not short; measuring from beginning to end; measuring much; for much
time
look - v. to turn the eyes toward so as to see; to search or hunt for; to seem to be
lose - v. to have no longer; to not find; to fail to keep; to be defeated
loud - ad. having a strong sound; full of sound or noise
love - v. to like very much; to feel a strong, kind emotion (sometimes involving sex);
n. a strong, kind emotion for someone or something; opposite hate
low - ad. not high or tall; below the normal height; close to the ground
loyal - ad. showing strong friendship and support for someone or something
luck - n. something that happens by chance
M
machine - n. a device with moving parts used to do work
magazine - n. a publication of news, stories, pictures or other information
mail - n. letters, papers and other things sent through an official system, such as a
post office
main - ad. the most important or largest
major - ad. great in size, importance or amount
majority - n. the greater number; more than half
make - v. to produce; to create; to build; to do something or to carry out an action;
to cause to be or to become
male - n. a man or boy; the sex that is the father of children; ad. of or about men
man - n. an adult male human
manufacture - v. to make goods in large amounts
many - ad. a large number or amount of
map - n. a picture of the earth's surface or a part of it
march - v. to walk in a group like soldiers; to walk together in a large group to
protest about something
mark - v. to make a sign or cut on something
market - n. a place or area where goods are sold, bought or traded; an economic
system in which the prices of things are decided by how many there are and how
much money people are willing to pay for them
marry - v. to join a man and woman together as husband and wife; to become
husband and wife (usually in a religious or civil ceremony)
mass - n. an amount of matter having no special form and usually of a large size
mate - v. to bring together a male and a female to create another creature
material - n. the substance, substances or matter of which something is made or
from which something can be made, such as wood, cloth or stone; anything that can
be made into something else
mathematics - n. the science dealing with amounts, sizes and shapes, as explained
by numbers and signs
matter - n. anything that can be seen or felt; what things are made of
may - v. a word used with an action word to mean permit or possible ("May I go?"
"They may leave tomorrow.")
mayor - n. the chief official of a city or town government
meal - n. food eaten to satisfy hunger, such as dinner
mean - v. to want to; to give the idea of; to have the idea of
measure - v. to learn the amount, size or distance of something; n. an action taken;
a legislative proposal
meat - n. the part of a dead animal used for food
media - n. all public information organizations, including newspapers, television and
radio
medicine - n. a substance or drug used to treat disease or pain; the science or study
of treating and curing disease or improving health
meet - v. to come together with someone or something at the same time and place
melt - v. to make a solid into a liquid by heating it
member - n. one of a group
memorial - n. something done or made to honor the memory of a person or event
memory - n. a picture in the mind of past events; the ability to remember; a thing
remembered
mental - ad. about or having to do with the mind
mercy - n. kindness toward those who should be punished; the power to be kind or
to pardon
message - n. written or spoken news or information; a note from one person to
another person or group
metal - n. a hard substance such as iron, steel or gold
method - n. the way something is done
microscope - n. a device used to make very small things look larger so they can be
studied
middle - n. the center; a place or time of equal distance from both sides or ends; ad.
in the center
militant - n. someone active in trying to cause political change, often by the use of
force or violence
military - n. the armed forces of a nation or group; ad. of or about the armed forces
milk - n. the white liquid produced by female animals to feed their young
mind - n. the thinking, feeling part of a person
mine - v. to dig useful or valuable substances out of the earth; n. a place in the earth
where such substances are found; a bomb placed under the ground or under water
so it cannot be seen
mineral - n. a substance found in nature that is not an animal or a plant, such as coal
or salt
minister - n. a member of a cabinet; a high government official ("prime minister,"
"foreign minister")
minor - ad. small in size; of little importance
minority - n. the smaller number; opposite majority
minute - n. a measure of time; one of the sixty equal parts of an hour; sixty seconds
miss - v. to fail to hit, see, reach or meet
missile - n. any weapon that can be thrown or fired through the air and explodes
when it reaches its target
missing - ad. lost; not found
mistake - n. a wrong action or decision; an action done without the knowledge that
it was wrong
mix - v. to put different things together to make one thing
mob - n. a large group of wild or angry people
model - n. an example; something, usually small, made to show how something will
look or work
moderate - ad. not extreme
modern - ad. of the present or very recent time; the most improved
money - n. pieces of metal or paper used to pay for things
month - n. one of the twelve periods of time into which a year is divided
moon - n. the bright object often seen in the night sky that orbits the earth about
every twenty-nine days
moral - ad. concerning what is right or wrong in someone's actions
more - ad. greater in size or amount
morning - n. the early part of the day, from sunrise until noon
most - ad. greatest in size or amount
mother - n. the female parent; a woman who has a child or children
motion - n. a movement; a continuing change of position or place
mountain - n. a part of the earth's surface that rises high above the area around it
mourn - v. to express or feel sadness
move - v. to change position; to put or keep in motion; to go
movement - n. the act of moving or a way of moving; a series of acts or efforts to
reach a goal
movie - n. a motion picture; a film
much - ad. great in amount
murder - v. to kill another person illegally; n. the crime of killing another person
music - n. the making of sounds by singing or using a musical instrument
must - v. a word used with an action word to mean necessary ("You must go to
school.")
mystery - n. something that is not or cannot be explained or understood; a secret
N
name - v. to appoint; to nominate; to give a name to; n. a word by which a person,
animal or thing is known or called
narrow - ad. limited in size or amount; not wide; having a short distance from one
side to the other
nation - n. a country, together with its social and political systems
native - n. someone who was born in a place, not one who moved there
natural - ad. of or about nature; normal; common to its kind
nature - n. all the plants, animals and other things on earth not created by humans;
events or processes not caused by humans
navy - n. the part of a country's military force trained to fight at sea
near - ad. not far; close to
necessary - ad. needed to get a result or effect; required
need - v. to require; to want; to be necessary to have or to do
negotiate - v. to talk about a problem or situation to find a common solution
neither - ad. not one or the other of two
neutral - ad. not supporting one side or the other in a dispute
never - ad. at no time; not ever
new - ad. not existing before; not known before; recently made, built, bought or
grown; another; different
news - n. information about any recent events, especially as reported by the media
next - ad. coming immediately after; nearest
nice - ad. pleasing; good; kind
night - n. the time between when the sun goes down and when it rises, when there
is little or no light
no - ad. used to reject or to refuse; not any; not at all
noise - n. sound, especially when loud
nominate - v. to name someone as a candidate for an election; to propose a person
for an office or position
noon - n. the middle of the day; twelve o'clock in the daytime
normal - n. the usual condition, amount or form; ad. usual; what is expected
north - n. the direction to the left of a person facing the rising sun
not - ad. a word showing that something is denied or untrue ("She is not going.")
note - v. to talk about something already known; n. a word or words written to help
a person remember; a short letter
nothing - n. not anything; no thing
now - ad. at this time; immediately
nowhere - ad. not in, to or at any place
nuclear - ad. of or about the energy produced by splitting atoms or bringing them
together; of or about weapons that explode by using energy from atoms
number - n. a word or sign used to show the order or amount of things
O
obey - v. to act as one is ordered to act
object - v. to show that one does not like or approve; to protest; n. something not
alive that can be seen or touched
observe - v. to watch; to look at carefully; to celebrate or honor something ("They
will observe the anniversary of the day she was born.")
occupy - v. to take and hold or to control by force
ocean - n. the area of salt water that covers almost seventy-five percent of the
earth's surface; any of the five main divisions of this water
of - prep. made from; belonging to; about; connected to; included among
off - ad. away; at a distance; condition when something is no longer operating or
continuing; not on; not connected
offensive - n. a military campaign of attack; ad. having to do with attacking
offer - v. to present or propose; n. the act of presenting or proposing; that which is
presented or proposed
office - n. a room or building where business or work is done; a public position to
which one is elected or appointed
officer - n. a person in the military who commands others; any person who is a
member of a police force
official - n. a person with power in an organization; a representative of an
organization or government; ad. of or about an office; approved by the government
or someone in power
often - ad. many times
oil - n. a thick liquid that does not mix with water and that burns easily; a black
liquid taken from the ground and used as fuel
old - ad. not young or new; having lived or existed for many years
on - prep. above and held up by; touching the upper surface of ("The book is on the
table."); supported by ("He is on his feet."); about ("The report on the meeting is
ready."); at the time of ("He left on Wednesday.")
once - ad. one time only
only - ad. being the single one or ones; no more than ("We have only two dollars.")
open - v. to start ("They opened talks."); ad. not closed; not secret
operate - v. to do work or a job; to cut into the body for medical reasons
opinion - n. a belief based on one's own ideas and thinking
oppose - v. to be against; to fight against
opposite - ad. different as possible; completely different from; exactly the other way
("North is the opposite direction from south.")
oppress - v. to make others suffer; to control by the use of unjust and cruel force or
power
or - conj. giving another of two choices; giving the last of several choices
orbit - v. to travel in space around a planet or other object; n. the path or way an
object travels in space around another object or planet
order - v. to give a command; to tell someone what to do; n. a command; the correct
or normal way things are organized; a peaceful situation in which people obey laws
organize - v. to put in order; to put together into a system
other - ad. different; of another kind; the remaining one or ones of two or more
("That man is short; the other is tall.")
our - ad. of or belonging to us
oust - v. to force to leave; to remove by force
out - ad. away from the inside; opposite of in
over - conj. above; covering; across, in or on every part of ("all over the world")
overthrow - v. to remove from power; to defeat or end by force
owe - v. to pay or have to repay (usually money) in return for something received
own - v. to have or possess for oneself
P
pain - n. a hurt or suffering somewhere in the body
paint - v. to cover with a liquid color; to make a picture with liquid colors; n. a
colored liquid used to cover or protect a surface
pan - n. a metal container used for cooking
paper - n. a thin, flat material made from plants or cloth often used for writing
parachute - n. a device that permits a person or thing to fall slowly from an airplane
or helicopter to the ground
parade - n. a group of people and vehicles moving together to celebrate a special
event or anniversary
pardon - v. to forgive for a crime and release from punishment
parent - n. a father or mother
parliament - n. a government lawmaking group
part - n. something less than the whole; not all of something
party - n. a group of people working together for a political purpose; a group of
people or friends gathered together for enjoyment
pass - v. to go by or move around something; to move along; to cause or permit to
go
passenger - n. a person travelling by airplane, train, boat or car who is not the pilot
or driver
passport - n. a document permitting a person to travel to another country
past - n. the time gone by; the time before; ad. recent; immediately before; former
path - n. a narrow way for walking; a way along which something moves
patient - n. a person being treated by a doctor for a health problem
pay - v. to give money for work done or for something bought
peace - n. the condition of freedom from war, fighting or noise; rest; quiet
people - n. any group of persons; all the persons of a group, race, religion or nation
("the American people")
percent - n. a part of every hundred ("Ten is ten percent of one hundred.")
perfect - ad. complete or correct in every way; completely right or good; without
mistakes
perform - v. to speak, dance or sing in front of others
period - n. an amount of time within events, restrictions or conditions
permanent - ad. never changing; lasting for a very long time or for all time
permit - v. to let; to make possible
person - n. a man, woman or child
physical - ad. of the body
physics - n. the study of motion, matter and energy
picture - n. something that shows what another thing looks like; an idea or
representation of something as seen by the eye; a painting; what is made with a
camera
piece - n. a part of something larger
pig - n. a farm animal used for its meat
pilot - n. one who guides or flies an airplane or helicopter
pipe - n. a long, round piece of material used to move liquid or gas
place - v. to put something somewhere; n. an area or a part of an area; space where
a person or thing is; any room, building, town or country
plan - v. to organize or develop an idea or method of acting or doing something
("They plan to have a party."); n. an organized or developed idea or method ("The
plan will not work.")
planet - n. a large object in space that orbits the sun ("Earth is a planet.")
plant - v. to put into the ground to grow; n. a living growth from the ground which
gets its food from air, water and earth
plastic - n. a material made from chemicals that can be formed and made into things
play - v. to have fun; to not work; to take part in a sport; to make music on an
instrument; n. a story acted in a theater
please - v. to make one happy; to give enjoyment
plenty - n. all that is needed; a large enough amount
plot - v. to make secret plans; n. a secret plan to do something wrong or illegal
poem - n. words and their sounds organized in a special way to express emotions
point - v. to aim one's finger toward; to aim; n. the sharp end of something
poison - n. a substance that can destroy life or damage health
police - n. a government agency responsible for guarding the public, keeping order,
and making sure people obey the law; members of that agency
policy - n. an established set of plans or goals used to develop and make decisions
in politics, economics or business
politics - n. the activities of government and of those who are in public office
pollute - v. to release dangerous or unpleasant substances into the air, soil or water
poor - n. people with little or no money; ad. lacking money or goods; of bad quality
popular - ad. liked by many people; generally approved by the public
population - n. all the people in a place, city or country
port - n. a city where ships load or unload goods; a place on a coast where ships can
be safe from a storm
position - n. a place; the way of holding the body; the way a thing is set or placed; a
job (or level of a job) in an organization
possess - v. to have; to own; to control or be controlled by
possible - ad. able to be done; can happen or is expected to happen
postpone - v. to delay action until a later time
pour - v. to flow; to cause to flow
power - n. the ability to control or direct others; control; strength; ruling force;
force or energy used to do work ("Water power turns the wheel.")
praise - v. to say good things about; to approve
pray - v. to make a request to a god or spirit; to praise a god or spirit
pregnant - ad. carrying a child within the body before it is born; expecting to give
birth to a baby
present - v. to offer for consideration ("We will present our idea to the
committee."); n. a gift ("I gave them a present for their anniversary."); now ("The
present time is a good time."); ad. to be at a place ("I was present at school
yesterday.")
president - n. the chief official of a country that is a republic; the leader of an
organization
press - v. to urge strongly; n. newspapers, magazines and other publications
pressure - n. the force produced when something is pushed down or against
something else
prevent - v. to keep or stop from going or happening
price - n. the amount of money for which anything is bought, sold or offered for sale
prison - n. a place where a person is kept as punishment for a crime
private - ad. of or about a person or group that is secret; opposite public
prize - n. something offered or won in a competition; something of value that one
must work hard for to get
probably - ad. a good chance of taking place; a little more than possible
problem - n. a difficult question or situation with an unknown or unclear answer
process - n. an operation or series of changes leading to a desired result
produce - v. to make; to create; to cause something to be; to manufacture
profession - n. a job that requires special training
professor - n. a teacher at a
college or university
profit - n. money gained from a business activity after paying all costs of that
activity
program - n. a plan of action; the different events or parts of a meeting or show
progress - n. movement forward or toward improvement or a goal
project - n. a planned effort to do something
propaganda - n. ideas or information used to influence opinions
property - n. anything owned by someone such as land, buildings or goods
propose - v. to present or offer for consideration
protect - v. to guard; to defend; to prevent from being harmed or damaged
protest - v. to speak against; to object
prove - v. to show to be true
provide - v. to give something needed or wanted
public - ad. of or about all the people in a community or country; opposite private
publication - n. something that is published such as a book, newspaper or magazine
publish - v. to make public something that is written; to include something in a
book, newspaper or magazine
pull - v. to use force to move something toward the person or thing using the force;
opposite push
pump - v. to force a gas or liquid up, into or through
punish - v. to cause pain, suffering or loss for doing something bad or illegal
purchase - v. to buy with money or with something of equal value; n. that which is
bought
pure - ad. free from anything that is different or that reduces value; clean
purpose - n. the reason or desired effect for doing something; goal
push - v. to use force to move something away from the person or thing using the
force; opposite pull
put - v. to place; to set in position
Q
quality - n. that which something is known to have or be ("An important quality of steel
is its strength."); amount of value or excellence ("Their goods are of the highest quality.")
question - v. to ask; to express wonder or disbelief; n. a sentence or word used in
asking for information; a problem; an issue to be discussed
quick - ad. fast
quiet - ad. with little or no noise; having little or no movement; calm
R
race - v. to run; to take part in a competition to decide who or what can move fastest;
to take part in a campaign for political office; n. one of the major groups that humans
can be divided into because of a common physical similarity, such as skin color
radar - n. a device that uses radio signals to learn the position or speed of objects
that may be too far away to be seen
radiation - n. waves of energy from something that produces heat or light; energy
from a nuclear substance, which can be dangerous
radio - n. the system of sending and receiving signals or sounds through the air
without wires
raid - v. to make a sudden attack; n. a sudden attack carried out as an act of war, or
for the purpose of seizing or stealing something
railroad - n. a road for trains; a company that operates such a road and its stations
and equipment
rain - n. water falling from the sky
raise - v. to lift up; to move to a higher position; to cause to grow; to increase
rare - ad. not common; not usual; not often
rate - n. speed; a measure of how quickly or how often something happens; the
price of any thing or service that is bought or sold
reach - v. to put a hand toward; to arrive at; to come to
react - v. to act as a result of or in answer to
read - v. to look at and understand the meaning of written words or numbers
ready - ad. prepared; completed; organized; willing
real - ad. true; truly existing; not false
realistic - ad. in agreement with the way things are
reason - n. the cause for a belief or act; purpose; something that explains
reasonable - ad. ready to listen to reasons or ideas; not extreme; ready or willing to
compromise
rebel - v. to act against a government or power, often with force; to refuse to obey;
n. one who opposes or fights against the government of his or her country
receive - v. to get or accept something given, offered or sent
recent - ad. a short time ago
recession - n. a temporary reduction in economic activity, when industries produce
less and many workers lose their jobs
recognize - v. to know or remember something or someone that was known, known
about or seen before; to accept another nation as independent and establish
diplomatic ties with its government
record - v. to write something in order to have it for future use; to put sound or
pictures in a form that can be kept and heard or seen again; n. a writing that shows
proof or facts about something
recover - v. to get again something that was lost, stolen or taken away ("The police
recovered the stolen money."); to return to normal health or normal conditions
("She is expected to recover from the operation.")
red - ad. having the color like that of blood
reduce - v. to make less or smaller in number, size or amount; to cut
reform - v. to make better by changing; to improve; n. a change to a better
condition
refugee - n. a person who has been forced to flee because of unjust treatment,
danger or war
refuse - v. to reject; to not accept, give or do something
regret - n. a feeling of sadness or sorrow about something that is done or that
happens
reject - v. to refuse to accept, use or believe
relations - n. understandings or ties between nations; members of the same family;
people connected by marriage or family ties
release - v. to free; to permit to go; to permit to be known or made public
religion - n. a belief in, or the honoring of, a god or gods
remain - v. to stay in a place after others leave; to stay the same
remains - n. a dead body
remember - v. to think about the past; opposite forget
remove - v. to take away or take off; to put an end to; to take out of a position or
office
repair - n. work done to fix something
repeat - v. to say or do again
report - v. to tell about; to give the results of a study or investigation; n. the story
about an event; the results of a study or investigation; a statement in which the
facts may not be confirmed
represent - v. to act in the place of someone else; to substitute for; to serve as an
example
repress - v. to control or to restrict freedoms by force
request - v. to ask for; n. the act of asking for
require - v. to need or demand as necessary
rescue - v. to free from danger or evil
research - n. a careful study to discover correct information
resign - v. to leave a position, job or office
resist - v. to oppose; to fight to prevent
resolution - n. an official statement of agreement by a group of people, usually
reached by voting
resource - n. anything of value that can be used or sold
responsible - ad. having a duty or job to do ("He is responsible for preparing the
report."); being the cause of ("They were responsible for the accident.")
rest - v. to sit, lie down or sleep to regain strength; n. that which remains; the
others
restrain - v. to keep controlled; to limit action by a person or group
restrict - v. to limit; to prevent from increasing or becoming larger
result - v. to happen from a cause; n. that which follows or is produced by a cause;
effect
retire - v. to leave a job or position because one is old or in poor health
return - v. to go or come back; to bring, give, take or send back
revolt - v. to protest violently; to fight for a change, especially of government
rice - n. a food grain
rich - ad. having much money or goods; having plenty of something
ride - v. to sit on or in and be carried along; to travel by animal, wheeled vehicle,
airplane or boat
right - n. what a person legally and morally should be able to do or have ("It is their
right to vote."); ad. agreeing with the facts; good; correct; opposite wrong; on the
side that is toward the east when one is facing north; opposite left
riot - v. to act with many others in a violent way in a public place; n. a violent action
by a large group of people
rise - v. to go up; to go higher; to increase; to go from a position of sitting or lying
to a position of standing
risk - n. the chance of loss, damage or injury
river - n. a large amount of water that flows across land into another river, a lake or
an ocean
road - n. a long piece of hard ground built between two places so people can walk,
drive or ride easily from one place to the other
rob - v. to take money or property secretly or by force; to steal
rock - n. a hard piece of mineral matter
rocket - n. a device shaped like a tube that moves through air or space by burning
gases and letting them escape from the back or bottom, sometimes used as a
weapon
roll - v. to turn over and over; to move like a ball
room - n. a separate area within a building with its own walls
root - n. the part of a plant that is under the ground and takes nutrients from the
soil
rope - n. a long, thick piece of material made from thinner pieces of material, used
for tying
rough - ad. not flat or smooth; having an uneven surface; violent; not made well
round - ad. having the shape of a ball or circle
rub - v. to move something over the surface of another thing
rubber - n. a substance made from the liquid of trees with the same name, or a
similar substance made from chemicals
ruin - v. to damage severely; to destroy
rule - v. to govern or control; to decide; n. a statement or an order that says how
something must be done
run - v. to move quickly by steps faster than those used for walking
S
sabotage - v. to damage or destroy as an act against an organization or nation
("The rebels sabotaged the railroad.")
sacrifice - v. to do without something or to suffer a loss for a belief, idea, goal or
another person
sad - ad. not happy
safe - ad. away from harm or danger
sail - v. to travel by boat or ship
sailor - n. a person involved in sailing a boat or ship
salt - n. a white substance found in sea water and in the ground, used to affect the
taste of food
same - ad. not different; not changed; like another or others
sand - n. extremely small pieces of crushed rock found in large amounts in deserts
and on coasts
satellite - n. a small object in space that moves around a larger object; an object
placed in orbit around the earth
satisfy - v. to give or provide what is desired, needed or demanded
save - v. to make safe; to remove from harm; to keep for future use
say - v. to speak; to express in words
school - n. a place for education; a place where people go to learn
science - n. the study of nature and the actions of natural things, and the knowledge
gained about them
sea - n. a large area of salt water, usually part of an ocean
search - v. to look for carefully
season - n. one of the four periods of the year that is based on the earth's position
toward the sun (spring, summer, autumn, winter); a period of time based on
different weather conditions ("dry season", "rainy season"); a period during the
year when something usually happens ("baseball season")
seat - n. a thing to sit on; a place to sit or the right to sit there ("a seat in
parliament")
second - ad. the one that comes after the first
secret - n. something known only to a few and kept from general knowledge; ad.
hidden from others; known only to a few
security - n. freedom from danger or harm; protection; measures necessary to
protect a person or place ("Security was increased in the city.")
see - v. to know or sense through the eyes; to understand or know
seed - n. the part of a plant from which new plants grow
seek(ing) - v. to search for ("They are seeking a cure for cancer."); to try to get
("She is seeking election to public office."); to plan to do ("Electric power
companies are seeking to reduce their use of coal.")
seem - v. to appear to be ("She seems to be in good health.")
seize - v. to take quickly by force; to take control of quickly; to arrest
self - n. all that which makes one person different from others
sell - v. to give something in exchange for money
Senate - n. the smaller of the two groups in the governments of some countries,
such as in the United States Congress
send - v. to cause to go; to permit to go; to cause to be carried, taken or directed to
or away from a place
sense - v. to come to know about by feeling, believing or understanding; n. any of
the abilities to see, hear, taste, smell or feel
sentence - v. to declare the punishment for a crime; n. the punishment for a crime
separate - v. to set or keep people, things or ideas away from or independent from
others; ad. not together or connected; different
series - n. a number of similar things or events that follow one after another in time,
position or order
serious - ad. important; needing careful consideration; dangerous
serve - v. to work as an official; to be employed by the government; to assist or
help
service - n. an organization or system that provides something for the public
("Schools and roads are services paid for by taxes."); a job that an organization or
business can do for money; military organizations such as an army, navy or air
force; a religious ceremony
set - v. to put in place or position; to establish a time, price or limit
settle - v. to end (a dispute); to agree about (a problem); to make a home in a new
place
several - ad. three or more, but not many
severe - ad. not gentle; causing much pain, sadness or damage
sex - n. either the male or female group into which all people and animals are
divided because of their actions in producing young; the physical activity by which
humans and animals can produce young
shake - v. to move or cause to move in short, quick movements
shape - v. to give form to; n. the form of something, especially how it looks
share - v. to give part of something to another or others; n. a part belonging to,
given to or owned by a single person or a group; any one of the equal parts of
ownership of a business or company
sharp - ad. having a thin edge or small point that can cut or hurt; causing hurt or
pain
she - pro. the girl or woman who is being spoken about
sheep - n. a farm animal used for its meat and hair
shell - v. to fire artillery; n. a metal container that is fired from a large gun and
explodes when it reaches its target; a hard outside cover
shelter - v. to protect or give protection to; n. something that gives protection; a
place of safety
shine - v. to aim a light; to give bright light; to be bright; to clean to make bright
ship - v. to transport; n. a large boat
shock - v. to cause to feel sudden surprise or fear; n. something that greatly affects
the mind or emotions; a powerful shake, as from an earthquake
shoe - n. a covering for the foot
shoot - v. to cause a gun or other weapon to send out an object designed to kill; to
use a gun
short - ad. lasting only for a small period of time; not long; opposite tall
should - v. used with another verb (action word) to show responsibility ("We should
study."), probability ("The talks should begin soon."), or that something is believed
to be a good idea ("Criminals should be punished.")
shout - v. to speak very loudly
show - v. to make something be seen; to make known; n. a play or story presented
in a theater, or broadcast on radio or television, for enjoyment or education;
something organized to be seen by the public
shrink - v. to make or become less in size, weight or value
sick - ad. suffering physically or mentally with a disease or other problem; not in
good health
sickness - n. the condition of being in bad health
side - n. the outer surfaces of an object that are not the top or bottom; parts away
from the middle; either the right or left half of the body
sign - v. to write one's name; n. a mark or shape used to mean something; evidence
that something exists or will happen; a flat piece of material with writing that gives
information
signal - v. to send a message by signs; n. an action or movement that sends a
message
silence - v. to make quiet; to stop from speaking or making noise; n. a lack of noise
or sound
silver - n. a valued white metal
similar - ad. like something else but not exactly the same
simple - ad. easy to understand or do; not difficult or complex
since - prep. from a time in the past until now ("I have known her since we went to
school together.")
sing - v. to make music sounds with the voice
single - ad. one only
sink - v. to go down into water or other liquid
sister - n. a female with the same father or mother as another person
sit - v. to rest on the lower part of the body without the support of the legs; to
become seated
situation - n. the way things are during a period of time
size - n. the space occupied by something; how long, wide or high something is
skeleton - n. all the bones of a human or other animal together in their normal
positions
skill - n. the ability gained from training or experience
skin - n. the outer covering of humans and most animals
sky - n. the space above the earth
slave - n. a person owned or controlled by another
sleep - v. to rest the body and mind with the eyes closed
slide - v. to move smoothly over a surface
slow - v. to reduce the speed of; ad. not fast in moving, talking or other activities
small - ad. little in size or amount; few in number; not important; opposite large
smash - v. to break or be broken into small pieces by force; to hit or move with
force
smell - v. to sense through the nose; n. something sensed by the nose ("the smell of
food cooking")
smoke - v. to use cigarettes or other tobacco products by burning them and
breathing in the smoke; n. that which can be seen rising into the air like a cloud
from something burning
smooth - ad. having a level surface; opposite rough
snow - n. soft, white pieces of frozen water that fall from the sky, usually in winter
or when the air temperature is very cold
so - ad. in such a way that ("He held the flag so all could see it."); also; too ("She
left early, and so did we."); very ("I am so sick."); as a result ("They were sick, so
they could not come."); conj. in order that; for the purpose of ("Come early so we
can discuss the plans.")
social - ad. of or about people or a group
soft - ad. not hard; easily shaped; pleasing to touch; not loud
soil - n. earth in which plants grow
soldier - n. a person in the army
solid - ad. having a hard shape with no empty spaces inside; strong; not in the form
of a liquid or gas
solve - v. to find an answer; to settle
some - ad. of an amount or number or part not
stated; not all
son - n. a person's male child
soon - ad. not long after the present time; quickly
sort - n. any group of people or things that are the same or are similar in some way;
a kind of something
sound - n. fast-moving waves of energy that affect the ear and result in hearing; that
which is heard
south - n. the direction to the right of a person facing the rising sun
space - n. the area outside the earth's atmosphere where the sun, moon, planets and
stars are; the area between or inside things
speak - v. to talk; to say words with the mouth; to express one's thoughts to others
and exchange ideas; to give a speech to a group
special - ad. of a different or unusual kind; not for general use; better or more
important than others of the same kind
speech - n. a talk given to a group of people
speed - v. to make something go or move faster; n. the rate at which something
moves or travels; the rate at which something happens or is done
spend - v. to give as payment; to use ("He spends much time studying.")
spill - v. to cause or permit liquid to flow out, usually by accident
spirit - n. the part of a human that is not physical and is connected to thoughts and
emotions; the part of a person that is believed to remain alive after death
split - v. to separate into two or more parts; to divide or break into parts
sport - n. any game or activity of competition involving physical effort or skill
spread - v. to become longer or wider; to make or become widely known
spring - n. the time of the year between winter and summer
spy - v. to steal or get information secretly; n. one who watches others secretly; a
person employed by a government to get secret information about another country
square - n. a flat shape having four equal sides
stab - v. to cut or push into or through with a pointed weapon
stand - v. to move into or be in a position in which only the feet are on a surface; to
be in one position or place
star - n. a mass of gas that usually appears as a small light in the sky at night, but is
not a planet; a famous person, usually an actor or singer
start - v. to begin; to make something begin
starve - v. to suffer or die from a lack of food
state - v. to say; to declare; n. a political part of a nation
station - n. a place of special work or purpose ("a police station"); a place where
passengers get on or off trains or buses; a place for radio or television broadcasts
statue - n. a form of a human, animal or other creature usually made of stone, wood
or metal
stay - v. to continue to be where one is; to remain; to not leave; to live for a time
("They stayed in New York for two years.")
steal - v. to take without permission or paying
steam - n. the gas that comes from hot water
steel - n. iron made harder and stronger by mixing it with other substances
step - v. to move by lifting one foot and placing it in a new position; n. the act of
stepping; one of a series of actions designed to reach a goal
stick - v. to attach something to another thing using a substance that will hold them
together; to become fixed in one position so that movement is difficult ("Something
is making the door stick."); n. a thin piece of wood
still - ad. not moving ("The man was standing still."); until the present or a stated time
("Was he still there?"); even so; although ("The job was difficult, but she still wanted to
do it.")
stone - n. a small piece of rock
stop - v. to prevent any more movement or action; to come or bring to an end
store - v. to keep or put away for future use; n. a place where people buy things
storm - n. violent weather, including strong winds and rain or snow
story - n. the telling or writing of an event, either real or imagined
stove - n. a heating device used for cooking
straight - ad. continuing in one direction without turns
strange - ad. unusual; not normal; not known
street - n. a road in a city, town or village
stretch - v. to extend for a distance; to pull on to make longer or wider
strike - v. to hit with force; to stop work as a way to seek better conditions, more
pay or to make other demands
strong - ad. having much power; not easily broken, damaged or destroyed
structure - n. the way something is built, made or organized; a system that is
formed or organized in a special way; a building
struggle - v. to try with much effort; to fight with; n. a great effort; a fight
study - v. to make an effort to gain knowledge by using the mind; to examine
carefully
stupid - ad. not able to learn much; not intelligent
subject - n. the person or thing being discussed, studied or written about
submarine - n. an underwater ship
substance - n. the material of which something is made (a solid, liquid or gas)
substitute - v. to put or use in place of another; n. a person or thing put or used in
place of another
subversion - n. an attempt to weaken or destroy a political system or government,
usually secretly
succeed - v. to reach a goal or thing desired; to produce a planned result
such - ad. of this or that kind; of the same kind as; similar to
sudden - ad. not expected; without warning; done or carried out quickly or without
preparation
suffer - v. to feel pain in the body or mind; to receive or experience hurt or sadness
sugar - n. a sweet substance made from liquids taken from plants
suggest - v. to offer or propose something to think about or consider
summer - n. the warmest time of the year, between spring and autumn
sun - n. the huge star in the sky that provides heat and light to earth
supervise - v. to direct and observe the work of others
supply - v. to give; to provide; n. the amount of something that can be given or sold
to others
support - v. to carry the weight of; to hold up or in position; to agree with others
and help them reach a goal; to approve
suppose - v. to believe, think or imagine ("I suppose you are right."); to expect ("It
is supposed to rain tonight.")
suppress - v. to put down or to keep down by force; to prevent information from
being known publicly
sure - ad. very probable; with good reason to believe; true without question
surface - n. the outer side or top of something ("The rocket landed on the surface of
the moon.")
surplus - n. an amount that is more than is needed; extra; ("That country has a trade
surplus. It exports more than it imports.")
surprise - v. to cause a feeling of wonder because something is not expected; n.
something not expected; the feeling caused by something not expected
surrender - v. to give control of oneself or one's property to another or others; to
stop fighting and admit defeat
surround - v. to form a circle around; to be in positions all around someone or
something
survive - v. to remain alive during or after a dangerous situation
suspect - v. to imagine or believe that a person is guilty of something bad or illegal;
n. a person believed to be guilty
suspend - v. to cause to stop for a period of time
swallow - v. to take into the stomach through the mouth
swear in - v. to put an official into office by having him or her promise to carry out
the duties of that office ("The chief justice will swear in the president.")
sweet - ad. tasting pleasant, like sugar
swim - v. to move through water by making motions with the arms and legs
sympathy - n. a sharing of feelings or emotions with another person, usually feelings
of sadness
system - n. a method of organizing or doing something by following rules or a plan;
a group of connected things or parts working together for a common purpose or
goal
T
take - v. to put a hand or hands around something and hold it, often to move it
to another place; to carry something ; to seize; to capture; to begin to be in control
("The president takes office tomorrow.")
talk - v. to express thoughts in spoken words; n. a meeting for discussion
tall - ad. higher than others; opposite short
tank - n. a large container for holding liquids; a heavy military vehicle with guns
target - n. any person or object aimed at or fired at
taste - v. to sense through the mouth ("The fruit tastes sweet.")
tax - n. the money a person or business must pay to the government so the
government can provide services
tea - n. a drink made from the plant of the same name
teach - v. to show how to do something; to provide knowledge; to cause to
understand
team - n. a group organized for some purpose, often for sports
tear - v. to pull apart, often by force
tears - n. the fluid that comes out of the eyes while crying
technical - ad. involving machines, processes and materials in industry,
transportation and communications; of or about a very special kind of subject or
thing ("You need technical knowledge to understand how this system works.")
technology - n. the use of scientific knowledge and methods to produce goods and
services
telephone - n. a device or system for sending sounds, especially the voice,
over distances
telescope - n. a device for making objects that are far away appear closer and larger
television - n. a device that receives electronic signals and makes them into pictures
and sounds; the system of sending pictures and sounds by electronic signals over a
distance so others can see and hear them on a receiver
tell - v. to give information; to make known by speaking; to order; to command
temperature - n. the measurement of heat and cold
temporary - ad. lasting only a short time
tense - ad. having fear or concern; dangerous; opposite calm
term - n. a limited period of time during which someone does a job or carries out a
responsibility ("He served two terms in Congress."); the conditions of an agreement
that have been accepted by those involved in it
terrible - ad. very bad; causing terror or fear
territory - n. a large area of land
terror - n. extreme fear; that which causes great fear
terrorist - n. a person who carries out acts of extreme violence as a protest or a way
to influence a government
test - v. to attempt to learn or prove what something is like or how it will act by
studying or doing ("The scientists will test the new engine soon."); n. an attempt to
learn or prove what something is like or how it will act by studying or doing ("The
test of the new engine takes place today."); a group of questions or problems used
to find out a person's knowledge ("The students did well on the language test.")
than - conj. connecting word used to link things that may be similar, but are not
equal ("My sister is taller than I am.")
thank - v. to say that one has a good feeling toward another because that person did
something kind ("I want to thank you for helping me.")
that - ad. showing the person, place or thing being spoken about ("That man is a
soldier."); pro. the person, place or thing being spoken about ("The building that I
saw was very large.")
the - pro. used in front of a name word to show that it is a person or thing that is
known about or is being spoken about
theater - n. a place where movies are shown or plays are performed
them - pro. other people being spoken about
then - ad. at that time; existing; and so
theory - n. a possible explanation of why something exists or how something
happens using experiments or ideas, but which is not yet proven ("Other scientists
are debating his theory about the disappearance of dinosaurs.")
there - ad. in that place or position; to or toward that place
these - pro. of or about the people, places or things nearby that have been spoken
about already
they - pro. those ones being spoken about
thick - ad. having a large distance between two opposite surfaces ("The wall is two
meters thick."); having many parts close together ("The forest is very thick.");
almost solid, such as a liquid that does not flow easily; opposite thin
thin - ad. having a small distance between two opposite surfaces; not fat; not wide;
opposite thick
thing - n. any object
think - v. to produce thoughts; to form ideas in the mind; to consider; to believe
third - ad. coming after two others
this - pro. of or about the person, place or thing nearby that has been spoken about
already
threaten - v. to warn that one will do harm or cause damage
through - prep. in at one end and out at the other; from front to back; from top to
bottom; with the help of; by
throw - v. to cause to go through the air by a movement of the arm
tie - v. to join or hold together with some material; n. anything that joins or unites;
links or connections ("The two nations have strong trade ties.")
time - n. that which is measured in minutes, hours, days and years; a period that can
be identified in hours and minutes and is shown on a clock; a period when an event
should or will take place
tired - ad. having less strength because of work or exercise; needing sleep or rest
to - prep. showing the direction of an action; showing the person or place toward
which an action is directed; showing a goal or purpose
today - n. this day
together - ad. in one group; at the same time or place; in cooperation
tomorrow - n. the day after today
tonight - n. this night
too - ad. also; as well as; more than is necessary
tool - n. any instrument or device designed to help one do work
top - n. the upper edge or surface; the highest part; the cover of something
torture - v. to cause severe pain; n. the act of causing severe pain in order to harm,
to punish or to get information from
total - n. the complete amount
touch - v. to put the hand or fingers on
toward - prep. in the direction of; leading to
town - n. a center where people live, larger than a village but not as large as a city
trade - v. to buy and sell or exchange products or services; n. the activity of buying,
selling or exchanging products or services
tradition - n. a ceremony, activity or belief that has existed for a long time
traffic - n. the movement of people, vehicles or ships along a street, road or
waterway
tragic - ad. extremely sad; terrible
train - v. to teach or learn how to do something; to prepare for an activity; n. an
engine and the cars connected to it that move along a railroad
transport - v. to move goods or people from one place to another
transportation - n. the act or business of moving goods or people
trap - v. to catch or be caught by being tricked; to be unable to move or escape; n. a
device used to catch animals
travel - v. to go from one place to another, usually for a long distance
treason - n. the act of fighting against one's own country or of helping its enemies
treasure - n. a large collection of money, jewels or other things of great value
treat - v. to deal with; to act toward in a special way; to try to cure
treatment - n. the act of treating; the use of medicine to try to cure or make better
treaty - n. a written agreement between two or more nations
tree - n. a very tall plant that is mostly wood, except for its leaves
trial - n. an examination in a court of a question or dispute to decide if a charge is
true
tribe - n. a group of families ruled by a common chief or leader
trick - v. to cheat; to fool a person so as to get something or make him or her do
something
trip - n. a movement from one place to another, usually a long distance
troops - n. a number of soldiers in a large controlled group
trouble - n. that which causes concern, fear, difficulty or problems
truce - n. a temporary halt in fighting agreed to by all sides involved
truck - n. a heavy vehicle used to carry goods
true - ad. correct; not false
trust - v. to believe that someone is honest and will not cause harm
try - v. to make an effort; to take court action against a person to decide if he or she
is guilty or innocent of a crime
tube - n. a long, round structure through which liquids or gases can flow; a long,
thin container in which they can be kept
turn - v. to change direction; to move into a different position; to change color, form
or shape
U
under - prep. below; below the surface of; less than; as called for by a law,
agreement or system ("The river flows under the bridge." "Such action is not
permitted under the law.")
understand - v. to know what is meant; to have knowledge of
unite - v. to join together
universe - n. all of space, including planets and stars
university - n. a place of education that usually includes several colleges and
research organizations
unless - conj. except if it happens; on condition that ("I will not go, unless the rain
stops.")
until - conj. up to a time; before
up - ad. to, in or at a higher position or value
urge - v. to advise strongly; to make a great effort to get someone to do something
urgent - ad. needing an immediate decision or action
us - pro. the form of the word "we" used after a preposition ("He said he would
write to us.") or used as an object of a verb ("They saw us yesterday.")
use - v. to employ for a purpose; to put into action
usual - ad. as is normal or common; as is most often done, seen or heard
V
valley - n. a long area of land between higher areas of land
value - n. the quality of being useful, important or desired; the amount of money
that could be received if something is sold
vegetable - n. a plant grown for food
vehicle - n. anything on or in which a person or thing can travel or be transported,
especially anything on wheels; a car or truck
version - n. the form of something with different details than earlier or later forms
very - ad. extremely ("He was very late.")
veto - v. to reject or refuse to approve
vicious - ad. bad; dangerous; showing harm or hate
victim - n. someone or something that is injured, killed or made to suffer; someone
who is tricked
victory - n. a success in a fight or competition
village - n. a very small town
violate - v. to fail to obey or honor; to break (an agreement)
violence - n. the use of force to cause injury, death or damage
visit - v. to go to or come to a place for a short time for friendly or business reasons
voice - n. the sound made by creatures, especially humans, for speaking
volcano - n. a hill or mountain around a hole in the earth's surface that can explode,
sending hot, melted rock and ash into the air
vote - v. to choose a candidate in an election; n. a choice or decision expressed by
the voice, by hand or by writing
W
wages - n. money received for work done
wait - v. to delay acting; to postpone
walk - v. to move by putting one foot in front of the other
wall - n. the side of a room or building formed by wood, stone or other material; a
structure sometimes used to separate areas of land
want - v. to desire; to wish for; to need
war - n. fighting between nations, or groups in a nation, using weapons
warm - ad. almost hot; having or feeling some heat
warn - v. to tell of possible danger; to advise or inform about something bad that
may happen
wash - v. to make clean, usually with water
waste - v. to spend or use without need or care; to make bad use of; n. a spending of
money, time or effort with no value gained or returned; something thrown away as
having no value; the liquid and solid substances that result from body processes and
are passed out of the body
watch - v. to look at; to observe closely; to look and wait for
water - n. the liquid that falls from the sky as rain or is found in lakes, rivers and
oceans
wave - v. to move or cause to move one way and the other, as a flag in the wind; to
signal by moving the hand one way and the other; n. a large mass of water that
forms and moves on the surface of a lake or ocean
way - n. a path on land or sea or in the air; how something is done; method
we - pro. two or more people, including the speaker or writer ("He and I will go
together, and we will return together.")
weak - ad. having little power; easily broken, damaged or destroyed; opposite
strong
wealth - n. a large amount of possessions, money or other things of value
weapon - n. anything used to cause injury or to kill during an attack, fight or war
wear - v. to have on the body, as clothes
weather - n. the condition of the atmosphere resulting from sun, wind, rain, heat or
cold
week - n. a period of time equal to seven days
weigh - v. to measure how heavy someone or something is
welcome - v. to express happiness or pleasure when someone arrives or something
develops
well - ad. in a way that is good or pleasing; in good health; n. a hole in the ground
where water, gas or oil can be found
west - n. the direction in which the sun goes down
wet - ad. covered with water or other liquid; not dry
what - pro. used to ask about something or to ask for information about something
("What is this?"); ad. which or which kind ("He wants to know what you would like
to drink.")
wheat - n. a grain used to make bread; the plant that produces the grain
wheel - n. a round structure that turns around a center
when - ad. at what time; at any time ("When will she come home?"); conj. during or
at the time ("I studied hard when I was in school.")
where - ad., conj. at, to or in what place ("Where is his house?" "The house where
he lives is in the old part of the city.")
which - pro. used to ask about what one or what ones of a group of things or people
("Which program do you like best?" "Which students will take the test?")
while - n. a space of time ("Please come to my house for a while."); conj. at or
during the same time ("It may not be a good idea to eat while you are running.")
white - ad. having the color like that of milk or snow
who - pro. what or which person or persons that ("Who wants to go?"); the person
or persons ("They are the ones who want to go.")
whole - ad. the complete amount; all together; not divided; not cut into pieces
why - ad. for what cause or reason ("Why did she do it?"); conj. the reason for
which ("I do not know why she did it.")
wide - ad. having a great distance from one side to the other; not limited
wife - n. a woman who is married
wild - ad. living and growing in natural conditions and not organized or supervised
by humans; angry; uncontrolled
will - v. a word used with action words to show future action ("They will hold talks
tomorrow.")
willing - ad. being ready or having a desire to ("They are willing to talk about the
problem.")
win - v. to gain a victory; to defeat another or others in a competition, election or
battle
wind - n. a strong movement of air
window - n. an opening in a wall to let in light and air, usually filled with glass
winter - n. the coldest time of year, between autumn and spring
wire - n. a long, thin piece of metal used to hang objects or to carry electricity or
electronic communications from one place to another
wise - ad. having much knowledge and understanding; able to use knowledge and
understanding to make good or correct decisions
wish - v. to want; to express a desire for
with - prep. along or by the side of; together; using ("He fixed it with a tool.");
having ("the house with the red door")
withdraw - v. to take or move out, away or back; to remove
without - prep. with no; not having or using; free from; not doing
woman - n. an adult female human
wonder - v. to ask oneself; to question ("She wonders if it is true."); n. a feeling of
surprise
wonderful - ad. causing wonder; especially good
wood - n. the solid material of which trees are made
word - n. one or more connected sounds that form a single part of a language
work - v. to use physical or mental effort to make or do something; n. the effort
used to make or to do something; that which needs effort; the job one does to earn
money
world - n. the earth; the people who live on the earth
worry - v. to be concerned; to continue thinking that something, possibly bad, can
happen
worse - ad. more bad than
worth - n. value measured in money
wound - v. to injure; to hurt; to cause physical damage to a person or animal; n. an
injury to the body of a human or animal in which the skin is usually cut or broken
wreck - v. to damage greatly; to destroy; n. anything that has been badly damaged
or broken
wreckage - n. what remains of something severely damaged or destroyed
write - v. to use an instrument to make words appear on a surface, such as paper
wrong - ad. not correct; bad; not legal; opposite right
Y
year - n. a period of time equal to twelve months
yellow - ad. having the color like that of gold or the sun
yes - ad. used to express agreement or to permit
yesterday - n. the day before today
yet - ad. at some time before now ("Have they arrived yet?"); now; at this time ("I
cannot tell you about it yet."); conj. however ("The sun was shining, yet it was
cold.")
you - pro. the person or persons being spoken to
young - ad. in the early years of life; not old
Z
zero - n. the number meaning none or nothing
zoo - n. a place where animals are kept for the public to look at and study
COMMON PREFIXES
dis - not (dishonest, disobey)
pro - for, supporting (pro-labor, pro-government)
re - to do again (reorganize, reunite)
self - used to show that the person or group acting is the one affected by the action,
or to show that the action is done only by its own effort or power (self-declared,
self-appointed)
un - not (unusual, unhappy)
COMMON EXPRESSIONS
carry out - to do; to put into effect ("Please carry out the plan.")
pass a bill - approve ("Congress is expected to pass a bill to cut taxes.")
take steps - to start to do something ("The government will take steps to halt
inflation.")
WORDS USED IN VOA SPECIAL ENGLISH
SCIENCE PROGRAMS
atom - a very small part of all things; the smallest part of an element that can join
with parts of other elements
bacteria - living things that are one cell and can be seen only through a microscope;
some cause disease
cell - a small mass of living material that is part of all plants and animals
chromosome - a line of genes; most human cells contain 46 chromosomes
compound - a substance containing two or more elements
dense - close together; thick
electron - a small part of an atom that has an electrical force
element - one of more than 100 substances known to science that cannot be
separated into other substances
enzyme - a special kind of protein; it produces changes in other substances without
being changed itself
fetus - unborn young
fission - a splitting; in atomic fission, the nucleus of an atom is split to produce
nuclear energy
fusion - a joining together; in atomic fusion, atomic particles are joined together to
produce nuclear energy
genes - parts of cells that control the growth and development of living things;
genes from the mother and father are passed to the child; genes contain nucleic
acid
genetic engineering - the science of changing the genes of a living organism
gravity - the force that pulls things toward the center of the earth
image - a reproduction of the appearance of a person or thing
laser - an instrument that makes a thin, powerful light
magnet - a piece of iron or other material that has a pulling force; this pulling force
is called magnetism
molecule - the smallest amount of a chemical substance that can exist
nerve - a thin piece of tissue that sends information through the body to and from
the brain
nucleus - the center part of an atom or cell
nucleic acid - a molecule that holds the genetic information necessary for life; there
are two kinds of nucleic acid: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic
acid)
nutrient - a food or substance that makes plants, humans or animals grow
organ - a part of the body that has a special purpose, such as the heart or brain
organism - a living thing, often so small it can be seen only through a microscope
particle - a very small piece of matter
proteins - substances responsible for the growth of tissue and for fixing damaged
tissue
robot - a machine that moves and performs tasks
tissue - living material; a group of cells that are similar in appearance and do the
same thing
virus - a kind of organism that causes disease
x-rays - a kind of radiation that can pass through most solid materials, often used in
medicine
ORGANS OF THE BODY
heart - pumps blood through the body
intestines - tubes through which food passes after it is broken down in the stomach;
part of the intestines also remove solid wastes from the body
kidney - cleans liquid wastes from the body
liver - makes some proteins and enzymes; removes poisons from the blood
lung - takes in and expels air from the body
prostate - a part of the male reproductive system
stomach - breaks down food for the body to use
uterus - a part of the female reproductive system where a fetus develops
n. (noun) - a name word
v. (verb) - an action word
ad. (adjective/adverb) - a describing word
prep. (preposition) - a word used to show a relation
pro. (pronoun) - a word used in place of a noun
conj. (conjunction) - a joining word
A
a (an) - ad. one; any; each
able - v. having the power to do something
about - ad. almost ("about half"); of or having a relation to ("We talk about the
weather.")
above - ad. at a higher place
accept - v. to agree to receive
accident - n. something that happens by chance or mistake; an unplanned event
accuse - v. to say a person is responsible for an act or crime; to make a statement
against someone
across - ad. from side to side; to the other side
act - v. to do something
activist - n. one who seeks change through action
actor - n. someone acting in a play or show
add - v. to put (something) with another to make it larger; to say more
administration - n. the executive part of a government, usually headed by a
president or prime minister
admit - v. to accept ("admitted to the United Nations"); to express one's guilt or
responsibility ("He admitted that what he did was wrong.")
adult - n. a grown person
advise - v. to help with information, knowledge or ideas in making a decision
affect - v. to produce an effect on; to influence ("A lack of sleep affected the singer's
performance.")
afraid - ad. feeling fear
after - ad. later; behind
again - ad. another time; as before
against - ad. opposed to; not agreeing with something
age - n. how old a person or thing is
agency - n. an organization that is part of a larger group ("an agency of the United
Nations")
aggression - n. an attack against a person or country; the violation of a country's
borders
ago - ad. of time past; before now
agree - v. to have the same belief as someone; to be willing to do something
agriculture - n. farming
aid - v. to help; to support; n. help, assistance
aim - v. to point a gun at; n. a goal or purpose
air - n. the mixture of gases around the earth, mostly nitrogen and oxygen, that we
breathe
air force - n. a military organization using airplanes
airplane - n. a vehicle with wings that flies
airport - n. a place where airplanes take off and land
album - n. a collection of recorded music
alcohol - n. a strong, colorless liquid, usually made from grain, used as a drug or in
industrial products
alive - ad. having life; not dead
all - ad. everything; everyone; the complete amount
ally - n. a nation or person joined with another for a special purpose
almost - ad. a little less than completely
alone - ad. separated from others
along - ad. near or on ("along the road")
already - ad. before now; even now
also - ad. added to; too
although - conj. even if it is true that
always - ad. at all times; every time
ambassador - n. a nation's highest diplomatic representative (to another
government)
amend - v. to add to or to change (a proposal or law)
ammunition - n. the bullets or shells fired from guns
among - ad. in or part of (a group)
amount - n. the number, size or weight of anything
anarchy - n. a lack of order; lawlessness
ancestor - n. a family member from the past
ancient - ad. very old; long ago
and - conj. also; in addition to; with
anger - n. a strong emotion against someone or something
animal - n. a living creature that moves, such as a dog or cat
anniversary - n. a yearly celebration or observance of an event that happened in the
past
announce - v. to make known publicly; to declare officially
another - ad. one more; a different one
answer - n. a statement produced by a question; v. to make a statement after being
asked a question
any - ad. one or more of no special kind
apologize - v. to express regret for a mistake or accident for which one accepts
responsibility
appeal - v. to take to a higher court, person or group for a decision; to call on
somebody for help
appear - v. to show oneself; to come into sight; to seem
appoint - v. to name; to choose ("appoint a judge")
approve - v. to agree with; to agree to support
archeology - n. the scientific study of past human life and activities
area - n. any place or part of it
argue - v. to offer reasons for or against something; to dispute; to disagree
arms - n. military equipment; weapons
army - n. military ground forces
around - ad. on every side (of)
arrest - v. to seize a person for legal action; to take as a prisoner
arrive - v. to come to a place, especially at the end of a trip
art - n. expressions or creations by humans, such as paintings, music, writing or
statues
artillery - n. big guns
as - conj. equally ("as fast as"); when; while
ash - n. the part left after something burns
ask - v. to question; to say something is wanted ("We ask the teacher questions
every day.")
assist - v. to help
astronaut - n. a person who travels in space
astronomy - n. the scientific study of stars and the universe
asylum - n. political protection given by a government to a person from another
country
at - prep. in or near ("at the edge"); where ("look at"); when ("at noon")
atmosphere - n. the gases surrounding any star or planet
attach - v. to tie together; to connect
attack - n. a violent attempt to damage, injure or kill; v. to start a fight
attempt - v. to work toward something; to try; to make an effort
attend - v. to be present at
automobile - n. a vehicle with wheels used to carry people; a car
autumn - n. the time of the year between summer and winter
average - n. something (a number) representing the middle; ad. common; normal
avoid - v. to stay away from
awake - ad. not sleeping
award - n. an honor or prize for an act or service
away - ad. not near
B
baby - n. a newly born creature
back - n. the part behind the front; ad. the other way from forward
bad - ad. wrong; acting against the law; not good
balance - v. to make two sides or forces equal
ball - n. something round
balloon - n. a device of strong, light material that rises when filled with gas lighter
than air
ballot - n. a piece of paper used for voting
ban - v. to not permit; to stop; n. an official restriction
bank - n. an organization that keeps and lends money
bar - v. to prevent or block
barrier - n. anything that blocks or makes an action difficult
base - n. a military center; v. to establish as a fact ("Her research was based on
experiments.")
battle - n. a fight between opposing armed forces
be - v. to live; to happen; to exist
beat - v. to hit again and again
beauty - ad. that which pleases the eye, ear or spirit
because - prep. for the reason that ("He left because he was sick.")
become - v. to come to be
bed - n. a sleeping place
before - prep. earlier
begin - v. to do the first part of an action; to start
behind - ad. at the back of; in back of
believe - v. to think; to feel sure of; to accept as true; to trust
bell - n. an instrument that makes a musical sound ("a church bell")
belong - v. to be owned by; to be a member of
below - ad. lower than
best - ad. the most good
betray - v. to turn against; to be false to
better - ad. more good than
between - ad. in the space or time that separates; from one to the other ("talks
between two nations")
big - ad. of great size; not small
bill - n. a legislative proposal
biology - n. the scientific study of life or living things in all their forms
bird - n. a creature that flies
bite - v. to cut with the teeth
black - ad. dark; having the color like that of the night sky
blame - v. to accuse; to hold responsible
blanket - n. a cloth cover used to keep warm
bleed - v. to lose blood
blind - ad. not able to see
block - v. to stop something from being done; to prevent movement
blood - n. red fluid in the body
blow - v. to move with force, as in air ("The wind blows.")
blue - ad. having the color like that of a clear sky
boat - n. something built to travel on water that carries people or goods
body - n. all of a person or animal; the remains of a person or animal
boil - v. to heat a liquid until it becomes very hot
bomb - n. a device that explodes with great force; v. to attack or destroy with
bombs
bone - n. the hard material in the body
book - n. a long written work for reading
border - n. a dividing line between nations
born - v. to come to life; to come into existence
borrow - v. to take as a loan
both - ad. not just one of two, but the two together
bottle - n. a container, usually made of glass, to hold liquid
bottom - ad. the lowest part of something
box - n. something to put things into; a container, usually made of paper or wood
boy - n. a young male person
boycott - v. to refuse to take part in or deal with
brain - n. the control center of thought, emotions and body activity of all creatures
brave - ad. having no fear
bread - n. a food made from grain
break - v. to divide into parts by force; to destroy
breathe - v. to take air into the body and let it out again
bridge - n. a structure built over a waterway, valley or road so people and vehicles
can cross from one side to the other
brief - ad. short; not long
bright - ad. giving much light; strong and clear in color
bring - v. to come with something
broadcast - v. to send information, stories or music by radio or television; n. a radio
or television program
brother - n. a male with the same father or mother as another person
brown - ad. having the color like that of coffee
budget - n. a spending plan
build - v. to join materials together to make something
building - n. anything built for use as a house, factory, office, school, store or place
of entertainment
bullet - n. a small piece of metal shot from a gun
burn - v. to be on fire; to destroy or damage by fire
burst - v. to break open suddenly
bury - v. to put into the ground and cover with earth
bus - n. a public vehicle to carry people
business - n. one's work; buying and selling to earn money; trade
busy - ad. doing something; very active
but - conj. however; other than; yet
buy - v. to get by paying something, usually money
by - conj. near; at; next to ("by the road"); from ("a play by William Shakespeare");
not later than ("by midnight")
C
cabinet - n. a group of ministers that helps lead a government
call - v. to give a name to ("I call myself John."); to ask for or request ("They called
for an end to the fighting.")
calm - ad. quiet; peaceful; opposite tense
camera - n. a device for taking pictures
camp - n. a place with temporary housing
campaign - n. a competition by opposing political candidates seeking support from
voters; a connected series of military actions during a war
can - v. to be able to; to have the right to; n. a container used to hold liquid or food,
usually made of metal
cancel - v. to end; to stop
cancer - n. a disease in which dangerous cells grow quickly and destroy parts of the
body
candidate - n. a person who seeks or is nominated for an office or an honor
capital - n. the official center of a government; the city where a country's
government is
capitalism - n. an economic system in which the production of most goods and
services is owned and operated for profit by private citizens or companies
capture - v. to make a person or animal a prisoner; to seize or take by force; to get
control of
car - n. a vehicle with wheels used to carry people; an automobile; a part of a train
care - v. to like; to protect; to feel worry or interest
careful - ad. acting safely; with much thought
carry - v. to take something or someone from one place to another
case (court) - n. a legal action
case (medical) - n. an incident of disease ("There was only one case of chicken pox
at the school.")
cat - n. a small animal that often lives with humans
catch - v. to seize after a chase; to stop and seize with the hands
cause - v. to make happen; n. the thing or person that produces a result
ceasefire - n. a halt in fighting, usually by agreement
celebrate - v. to honor a person or event with special activities
center - n. the middle of something; the place in the middle; a place that is the main
point of an activity
century - n. one hundred years
ceremony - n. an act or series of acts done in a special way established by tradition
chairman - n. a person leading a meeting or an organized group
champion - n. the best; the winner
chance - n. a possibility of winning or losing or that something will happen
change - v. to make different; to become different
charge - v. to accuse someone of something, usually a crime; n. a statement in
which someone is accused of something
chase - v. to run or go after someone or something
cheat - v. to get by a trick; to steal from
cheer - v. to shout approval or praise
chemicals - n. elements found in nature or made by people; substances used in the
science of chemistry
chemistry - n. the scientific study of substances, what they are made of, how they
act under different conditions, and how they form other substances
chief - n. the head or leader of a group; ad. leading; most important
child - n. a baby; a boy or girl
children - n. more than one child
choose - v. to decide between two or more
circle - n. a closed shape that has all its points equally distant from the center, like
an "O"
citizen - n. a person who is a member of a country by birth or by law
city - n. any important large town
civilian - ad. not military
civil rights - n. the political, economic and social rights given equally to all people of
a nation
claim - v. to say something as a fact
clash - n. a battle; v. to fight or oppose
clean - v. to make pure; ad. free from dirt or harmful substances ("clean water")
clear - ad. easy to see or see through; easily understood
clergy - n. a body of officials within a religious organization
climate - n. the normal weather conditions of a place
climb - v. to go up or down something by using the feet and sometimes the hands
clock - n. a device that measures and shows time
close - v. to make something not open; ad. near to
cloth - n. a material made from plants, chemicals, animal hair and other substances
clothes - n. what people wear
cloud - n. a mass of fog high in the sky
coal - n. a solid black substance used as fuel
coalition - n. forces, groups or nations joined together
coast - n. land on the edge of the ocean
coffee - n. a drink made from the plant of the same name
cold - ad. not warm; having or feeling great coolness or a low temperature
collect - v. to bring or gather together in one place; to demand and receive ("collect
taxes")
college - n. a small university
colony - n. land controlled by another country or government
color - n. the different effects of light on the eye, making blue, red, brown, black,
yellow and others
combine - v. to mix or bring together
come - v. to move toward; to arrive
command - v. to order; to have power over something
comment - v. to say something about; to express an opinion about something
committee - n. a group of people given special work
common - ad. usual; same for all ("a common purpose")
communicate - v. to tell; to give or exchange information
community - n. a group of people living together in one place or area
company - n. a business organized for trade, industrial or other purposes
compare - v. to examine what is different or similar
compete - v. to try to do as well as, or better than, another or others
complete - ad. having all parts; ended or finished
complex - ad. of or having many parts that are difficult to understand; not simple
compromise - n. the settlement of an argument where each side agrees to accept
less than first demanded
computer - n. an electronic machine for storing and organizing information, and for
communicating with others
concern - n. interest, worry ("express concern about"); v. to fear ("to be
concerned")
condemn - v. to say a person or action is wrong or bad
condition - n. something declared necessary to complete an agreement; a person's
health
conference - n. a meeting
confirm - v. to approve; to say that something is true
conflict - n. a fight; a battle, especially a long one
congratulate - v. to praise a person or to express pleasure for success or good luck
Congress - n. the organization of people elected to make the laws of the United
States (the House of Representatives and the Senate); a similar organization in
other countries
connect - v. to join one thing to another; to unite; to link
conservative - n. one who usually supports tradition and opposes great change
consider - v. to give thought to; to think about carefully
constitution - n. the written general laws and ideas that form a nation's system of
government
contain - v. to hold; to include
container - n. a box, bottle or can used to hold something
continent - n. any of the seven great land areas of the world
continue - v. to go on doing or being
control - v. to direct; to have power over
convention - n. a large meeting for a special purpose
cook - v. to heat food before eating it
cool - ad. almost cold
cooperate - v. to act or work together
copy - v. to make something exactly like another; n. something made to look exactly
like another
corn - n. a food grain
correct - ad. true; free from mistakes; v. to change to what is right
cost - n. the price or value of something ("The cost of the book is five dollars."); v.
to be valued at ("The book costs five dollars.")
cotton - n. a material made from a plant of the same name
count - v. to speak or add numbers
country - n. a nation; the territory of a nation; land away from cities
court - n. where trials take place; where judges make decisions about law
cover - v. to put something over a person or thing; n. anything that is put over a
person or thing
cow - n. a farm animal used for its milk
crash - v. to fall violently; to hit with great force
create - v. to make; to give life or form to
creature - n. any living being; any animal or human
credit - n. an agreement that payments will be made at a later time
crew - n. a group of people working together
crime - n. an act that violates a law
criminal - n. a person who is responsible for a crime
crisis - n. an extremely important time when something may become much better or
worse; a dangerous situation
criticize - v. to say what is wrong with something or someone; to condemn; to
judge
crops - n. plants that are grown and gathered for food, such as grains, fruits and
vegetables
cross - v. to go from one side to another; to go across
crowd - n. a large number of people gathered in one place
crush - v. to damage or destroy by great weight; to defeat completely
cry - v. to express or show sorrow or pain
culture - n. all the beliefs, traditions and arts of a group or population
cure - v. to improve health; to make well ("The doctor can cure the disease."); n.
something that makes a sick person well ("Antibiotics are a cure for infection.")
curfew - n. an order to people to stay off the streets or to close their businesses
current - n. movement of air, water or electricity; ad. belonging to the present time
("She found the report in a current publication.")
custom - n. a long-established belief or activity of a people
customs - n. taxes on imports
cut - v. to divide or injure with a sharp tool; to make less; to reduce
D
dam - n. a wall built across a river to hold back flowing water
damage - v. to cause injury or destruction; n. harm; hurt or injury, usually to things
dance - v. to move the body and feet to music; n. a series of steps, usually to music
danger - n. a strong chance of suffering injury, damage or loss
dark - ad. having little or no light ("The room was dark.")
date - n. an expression of time; a day, month and year
daughter - n. a person's female child
day - n. twenty-four hours; the hours of sunlight
dead - ad. not living
deaf - ad. not able to hear
deal - v. to have to do with ("The talks will deal with the problem of pollution."); to
buy or sell ("Her company deals in plastic.")
debate - v. to argue for or against something; n. a public discussion or argument
debt - n. something that is owed; the condition of owing
decide - v. to choose; to settle; to judge
declare - v. to say; to make a statement
decrease - v. to make less in size or amount
deep - ad. going far down; a long way from top to bottom
defeat - v. to cause to lose in a battle or struggle; n. a loss; the condition of having
lost
defend - v. to guard or fight against attack; to protect
deficit - n. a shortage that results when spending is greater than earnings, or
imports are greater than exports
define - v. to give the meaning of; to explain
degree - n. a measure of temperature
delay - v. to decide to do something at a later time; to postpone; to cause to be late
delegate - n. one sent to act for another; one who represents another
demand - v. to ask by ordering; to ask with force
democracy - n. the system of government in which citizens vote to choose leaders or
to make other important decisions
demonstrate - v. to make a public show of opinions or feelings ("The crowd
demonstrated in support of human rights."); to explain by using examples ("The
teacher demonstrated the idea with an experiment.")
denounce - v. to accuse of being wrong or evil; to criticize severely
deny - v. to declare that something is not true; to refuse a request
depend - v. to need help and support
deplore - v. to regret strongly; to express sadness
deploy - v. to move forces or weapons into positions for action
depression - n. severe unhappiness; a period of reduced business and economic
activity during which many people lose their jobs
describe - v. to give a word picture of something; to give details of something
desert - n. a dry area of land
design - v. to plan or create plans for
desire - v. to want very much; to wish for
destroy - v. to break into pieces; to end the existence of
detail - n. a small part of something; a small piece of information
develop - v. to grow; to create; to experience progress
device - n. a piece of equipment made for a special purpose
dictator - n. a ruler with complete power
die - v. to become dead; to stop living; to end
diet - n. usual daily food and drink
different - ad. not the same
difficult - ad. not easy; hard to do, make or carry out
dig - v. to make a hole in the ground
dinner - n. the main amount of food eaten at a usual time ("The family had its dinner
at noon."); a special event that includes food ("The official dinner took place at the
White House.")
diplomat - n. a person who represents his or her government in dealing with another
government
direct - v. to lead; to aim or show the way ("He directed me to the theater."); ad.
straight to something; not through some other person or thing ("The path is
direct.")
direction - n. the way (east, west, north, south); where someone or something came
from or went to
dirt - n. earth or soil
disappear - v. to become unseen; to no longer exist
disarm - v. to take away weapons; to no longer keep weapons; to make a bomb
harmless by removing its exploding device
discover - v. to find or learn something
discuss - v. to talk about; to exchange ideas
disease - n. a sickness in living things, often caused by viruses, germs or bacteria
dismiss - v. to send away; to refuse to consider
dispute - v. to oppose strongly by argument; n. an angry debate
dissident - n. a person who strongly disagrees with his or her government
distance - n. the amount of space between two places or objects ("The distance
from my house to your house is two kilometers.")
dive - v. to jump into water head first
divide - v. to separate into two or more parts
do - v. to act; to make an effort
doctor - n. a person trained in medicine to treat sick people
document - n. an official piece of paper with facts written on it, used as proof or
support of something
dog - n. a small animal that often lives with humans
dollar - n. United States money, one hundred cents
door - n. an opening for entering or leaving a building or room
down - ad. from higher to lower; in a low place
dream - v. to have a picture or story in the mind during sleep; n. a picture or story in
the mind during sleep; a happy idea about the future
drink - v. to take liquid into the body through the mouth
drive - v. to control a moving vehicle
drop - v. to fall or let fall; to go lower
drown - v. to die under water
drug - n. anything used as a medicine or in making medicine; a chemical substance
used to ease pain or to affect the mind
dry - ad. not wet; without rain
during - ad. through the whole time; while (something is happening)
dust - n. pieces of matter so small that they can float in the air
duty - n. one's job or responsibility; what one must do because it is right and just
E
each - ad. every one by itself
early - ad. at or near the beginning, especially the beginning of the day; opposite
late
earn - v. to be paid in return for work done
earth - n. the planet we all live on; the ground or soil
earthquake - n. a sudden, violent shaking of the earth's surface
ease - v. to reduce; to make less difficult
east - n. the direction from which the sun rises
easy - ad. not difficult; not hard to do
eat - v. to take food into the body through the mouth
ecology - n. the scientific study of the environment and links among living and
material things
economy - n. the system by which money, industry and trade are organized
edge - n. the line where something ends or begins
education - n. the act of teaching
effect - n. the result or change caused by something ("The storm had a serious
effect on the economy.")
effort - n. an attempt; the work necessary to do something
egg - n. the rounded object containing unborn young produced by female birds, fish
or reptiles; a single cell in a female person or animal that can develop into a baby
either - ad. one of two, but not the other
elect - v. to choose by voting
electricity - n. a form of energy that flows through wires to provide heat and light,
and power to machines
embassy - n. the offices of an ambassador and his or her assistants
emergency - n. an unexpected and dangerous situation demanding quick action
emotion - n. a strong feeling such as love, hate, fear or sadness
employ - v. to give work in return for wages
empty - ad. having nothing inside; v. to remove everything
end - v. to stop; to finish; n. the part which comes last
enemy - n. a person opposing or hating another; a person or people of the other side
in a war
energy - n. power used to do work, usually with machines; the ability and
willingness to be active
enforce - v. to make something be done
engine - n. a machine that uses energy to cause movement or to do work
engineer - n. a person who designs engines, machines, roads, bridges or railroads
enjoy - v. to be pleased or satisfied by something
enough - ad. as much as necessary; pro. the amount needed
enter - v. to come or go into
environment - n. all surrounding things, conditions and influences that affect life;
the natural world of land, sea, air, plants and animals
equal - ad. the same in amount, size, weight or value; having the same rights
equipment - n. things, tools or machines needed for a purpose or activity
escape - v. to get free; to get away from; to get out of
especially - ad. more than others ("We liked the food, especially the fish.")
establish - v. to bring into existence; to create
estimate - v. to form an opinion about a value, size or amount using less than
complete information
ethnic - ad. of or concerning people belonging to a large group because of their race,
religion, language, tribe or where their ancestors lived
evaporate - v. to change from a liquid into a gas
even - ad. in a way not thought possible ("They survived, even though the building
was destroyed.")
event - n. that which happens, especially something of importance
ever - ad. at any time
every - ad. each one; all
evidence - n. material or facts that prove something; a reason for believing
evil - ad. not good; extremely bad
exact - ad. having no mistakes; correct in every detail
examine - v. to study closely
example - n. a part that shows what the rest of a thing or group is like
excellent - ad. extremely good
except - prep. but for
exchange - v. to trade; to give or receive one thing for another
excuse - v. to take away blame; to pardon; to forgive; n. a reason (sometimes false)
for an action
execute - v. to kill
exercise - n. an activity or effort for the purpose of improving the body or to stay in
good health
exile - v. to force a person to leave his or her country; to expel; n. a person who is
forced to leave his or her country
exist - v. to be; to live
expand - v. to make larger; to grow larger
expect - v. to think or believe that something will happen; to wait for an event
expel - v. to force out; to remove from; to send away
experience - v. to live through an event, situation or condition ("She experienced
great pain."); n. something that one has done or lived through ("The experience
caused her great pain.")
experiment - v. to test; n. a test or trial carried out to prove if an idea is true or
false, or to discover something
expert - n. a person with special knowledge or training
explain - v. to give reasons for; to make clear; to tell about; to tell the meaning
explode - v. to break apart violently with a loud noise, like a bomb
explore - v. to travel in a place that is not well known to learn more about it; to
make a careful search; to examine closely
export - v. to send to another country; n. something sent to another country, usually
for sale
express - v. to say clearly
extend - v. to stretch out in area or length; to continue for a longer time
extra - ad. more than normal, expected or necessary
extreme - ad. more than the usual or accepted
extremist - n. a person with strong religious or political beliefs who acts in an
extreme or violent way
F
face - n. the front of the head: eyes, nose, mouth; v. to look toward; to turn toward;
to have before you, such as a problem or danger
fact - n. something known or proved to be true
factory - n. a building or group of buildings where goods are made
fail - v. to not succeed; to not reach a goal
fair - ad. just; honest; what is right
fall - v. to go down quickly; to come down; to drop to the ground or a lower position
false - ad. not true; not correct
family - n. the group that includes children and their parents
famous - ad. known very well to many people
far - ad. at, to or from a great distance
farm - n. land used to grow crops and animals for food
fast - ad. moving or working at great speed; quick
fat - n. tissue in the bodies of humans and animals used to store energy and to keep
warm; ad. thick; heavy
father - n. the male parent; a man who has a child or children
fear - v. to be afraid; to worry that something bad is near or may happen ("He
feared falling down."); n. a strong emotion when there is danger or trouble ("He had
a fear that he would fall down.")
federal - ad. of or having to do with a national or central government
feed - v. to give food to
feel - v. to have or experience an emotion; to know by touching
female - n. a woman or girl; the sex that gives birth; ad. of or about women
fence - n. something around an area of land to keep animals or people in or out
fertile - ad. rich in production of plants or animals; producing much
few - ad. not many; a small number of
field - n. an area of open land, usually used to grow crops or to raise animals
fierce - ad. extremely strong; violent; angry
fight - v. to use violence or force; to attempt to defeat or destroy an enemy; n. the
use of force; a battle
fill - v. to put or pour something into a container until there is space for no more
film - v. to record something so it can be seen again; to make a motion picture or
movie; n. a thin piece of material for making pictures with a camera; a movie
final - ad. at the end; last
financial - ad. of or about the system that includes the use of money, credit,
investments and banks
find - v. to discover or learn something by searching or by accident; to decide a
court case ("The jury finds the man guilty of murder.")
fine - n. a payment ordered by a court to punish someone for a crime; ad. very good;
very small or thin
finish - v. to complete; to end
fire - v. to shoot a gun; n. the heat and light produced by something burning
fireworks - n. rockets producing bright fire in the sky, used in holiday celebrations
firm - ad. not easily moved or changed ("She is firm in her opinion.")
first - ad. coming before all others
fish - n. a creature that lives and can breathe in water
fit - v. to be of the correct size or shape ("These shoes fit my feet.")
fix - v. to make good or right again
flag - n. a piece of colored cloth used to represent a nation, government or
organization
flat - ad. smooth; having no high places
flee - v. to run away from
float - v. to be on water without sinking; to move or be moved gently on water or
through air
flood - v. to cover with water; n. the movement of water out of a river, lake or ocean
onto land
floor - n. the bottom part of a room for walking on ("The book fell to the floor."); the
level of a building ("The fire was on the first floor.")
flow - v. to move like a liquid
flower - n. the colored part of plants that carry seeds
fluid - n. any substance that can flow, such as a liquid
fly - v. to move through the air with wings, like a bird or airplane; to travel in an
airplane or flying vehicle
fog - n. a mass of wet air that is difficult to see through; a cloud close to the ground
follow - v. to come or go after; to accept the rule or power of; to obey
food - n. that which is taken in by all living things for energy, strength and growth
fool - v. to make someone believe something that is not true; to trick; n. a person
who is tricked easily
foot - n. the bottom part of the leg; the part of the body that touches the ground
when a person or animal walks
for - prep. because of ("He is famous for his work."); in exchange ("Give me one
dollar for the book."); through space or time ("They travelled for one hour.");
representative of ("I speak for all people."); to be employed by ("She works for a
computer company.")
force - v. to make someone do something or make something happen by using
power; n. power, strength; strength used against a person or object; military power
of a nation; a military group
foreign - ad. of, about or from another nation; not from one's own place or country
forest - n. a place of many trees
forget - v. to not remember
forgive - v. to pardon; to excuse; to remove guilt
form - v. to make; to start; to shape ("They formed a swim team."); n. a kind
("Swimming is a form of exercise.")
former - ad. earlier in time; not now
forward - ad. the direction in front of; toward the front
free - v. to release; ad. not controlled by another or by outside forces; not in prison;
independent; not limited by rules; without cost
freedom - n. the condition of being free
freeze - v. to cause or to become very cold; to make or to become hard by cold
fresh - ad. newly made or gathered; recent
friend - n. a person one likes and trusts
frighten - v. to cause great fear
from - prep. having a person, place or thing as a beginning or cause ("It is a
message from the president."); at a place distant, not near ("The school is five
kilometers from my home."); because of ("He is suffering from cancer.")
front - n. the forward part; the opposite of back; the beginning; the first part
fruit - n. food from trees and plants
fuel - n. any substance burned to create heat or power
full - ad. containing as much as a person or thing can hold; complete
fun - n. anything that is pleasing and causes happiness
funeral - n. a ceremony held in connection with the burial or burning of the dead
future - n. time after now ("We can talk about it in the future."); ad. in the time to
come ("All future meetings will be held in this room.")
G
gain - v. to get possession of; to get more; to increase
game - n. an activity with rules in which people or teams play or compete, usually
sports
gas - n. any substance that is not solid or liquid; any substance that burns to provide
heat, light or power
gather - v. to bring or come together into a group or place; to collect
general - n. a high military leader; ad. without details; affecting or including all or
almost all
gentle - ad. soft; kind; not rough or violent
get - v. to receive; to gain; to go and bring back; to become; to become the owner
of
gift - n. something given without cost
girl - n. a young female person
give - v. to present to another to keep without receiving payment
glass - n. a hard, clear material that is easily broken, used most often for windows
or for containers to hold liquids
go - v. to move from one place to another; to leave
goal - n. that toward which an effort is directed; that which is aimed at; the end of a
trip or race
god - n. the spirit that is honored as creator of all things ("They believe in God."); a
spirit or being believed in many religions to have special powers
gold - n. a highly valued yellow metal
good - ad. pleasing; helpful; kind; correct; not bad
goods - n. things owned or made to be sold
govern - v. to control; to rule by military or political power
government - n. a system of governing; the organization of people that rules a
country, city or area
grain - n. the seed of grass plants used for food, such as wheat, rice and corn; those
plants that produce the seeds
granddaughter - n. the daughter of a person's daughter or son
grandfather - n. the father of a person's father or mother
grandmother - n. the mother of a person's father or mother
grandson - n. the son of a person's daughter or son
grass - n. a plant with long, narrow, green leaves
gray - ad. having the color like that made by mixing black and white
great - ad. very large or more than usual in size or number; very good; important
green - ad. having the color like that made by mixing yellow and blue; having the
color like that of growing leaves and grass
grind - v. to reduce to small pieces by crushing
ground - n. land; the earth's surface; soil
group - n. a number of people or things together; a gathering of people working for
a common purpose
grow - v. to develop or become bigger; to increase in size or amount
guarantee - v. to promise a result; to promise that something will happen
guard - v. to watch and protect a person, place or thing ("He guards the
president."); n. a person or thing that watches or protects ("He is a prison guard.")
guerrilla - n. a person who fights as part of an unofficial army, usually against an
official army or police
guide - v. to lead to; to show the way; n. one who shows the way
guilty - ad. having done something wrong or in violation of a law; responsible for a
bad action
gun - n. a weapon that shoots bullets
H
hair - n. the fine material that grows from the skin, especially from the head
half - n. one of two equal parts of something
halt - v. to come or cause to come to a stop; to stop
hang - v. to place something so the highest part is supported and the lower part is
not; to kill by hanging
happen - v. to become a fact or event; to take place
happy - ad. pleased; satisfied; feeling good; not sad
hard - ad. not easily cut or broken; solid; difficult to do or understand; needing much
effort or force
harm - v. to injure; to damage; n. damage; hurt
harvest - v. to gather crops; n. the crop after it is gathered
hat - n. a head cover
hate - v. to have strong emotions against; to consider as an enemy; opposite love
have - v. to possess; to own; to hold
he - pro. the boy or man who is being spoken about
head - v. to lead; to command; n. leader; chief; the top part of something; the
highest position
headquarters - n. the center from which orders are given; the main offices of a
business or organization
heal - v. to return to good health; to cure; to become well
health - n. the general condition of the body and mind; the condition of being free
from sickness or disease
hear - v. to receive sound through the ears; to receive news about
heat - v. to make hot or warm; n. great warmth; that which is produced by burning
fuel; energy from the sun
heavy - ad. having much weight; not easy to lift; of great amount or force
helicopter - n. a machine without wings that can fly up or down or remain in one
place above the ground
help - v. to give support; to assist; to make easier; n. support; aid
here - ad. in, to or at this place
hero - n. a person honored for being brave or wise
hide - v. to prevent from being seen or found; to make secret
high - ad. tall; far up; far above the ground; important; above others
hijack - v. to seize or take control of a vehicle by force
hill - n. a small mountain
history - n. the written record or description of past events; the study of the past
hit - v. to strike; to touch with force
hold - v. to carry or support, usually in the hands or arms; to keep in one position;
to keep as a prisoner; to contain; to possess; to occupy; to organize and be involved
in ("The two sides hold talks this week.")
hole - n. an opening; a torn or broken place in something
holiday - n. a day when one does not work; a day on which no work is done to honor
or remember a person or event
holy - ad. greatly honored in religion
home - n. the building where a person lives, especially with family; the place where
one was born or comes from; the area or country where one lives
honest - ad. truthful; able to be trusted
honor - v. to obey; to show strong, good feelings for ("to honor one's parents"); n.
an award; an act of giving special recognition ("He received many honors for his
efforts to help others.")
hope - v. to expect; to believe there is a good chance that something will happen as
wanted; to want something to happen
horrible - ad. causing great fear; terrible
horse - n. a large animal often used for racing, riding or farm work
hospital - n. a place where sick or injured people are given medical care
hostage - n. a person captured and held as a guarantee that a demand or promise
will be honored
hostile - ad. ready to fight; ready for war
hot - ad. having or feeling great heat or a high temperature
hotel - n. a building with rooms, and often food, for travellers
hour - n. a measure of time; sixty minutes
house - n. a building in which people live; a country's parliament or lawmaking
group ("House of Representatives")
how - ad. in what way; to what amount
however - conj. yet; but
huge - ad. very big; of great size
human - ad. of or about people
humor - n. the ability to understand, enjoy or express what makes people laugh
hunger - n. the need for food
hunt - v. to search for animals to capture or kill them; to seek; to try to find
hurry - v. to do or go fast
hurt - v. to cause pain, injury or damage
husband - n. a man who is married
I
I - pro. the person speaking
ice - n. frozen water
idea - n. a thought or picture in the mind; a belief
identify - v. to recognize someone or something and to say who or what they are
if - conj. on condition; provided that ("I will go if you go.")
illegal - ad. not legal; in violation of a law
imagine - v. to make a picture in the mind; to form an idea
immediate - ad. without delay; very near in time or place
import - v. to bring from another country; n. something brought from another
country, usually for sale
important - ad. having great meaning, value or power
improve - v. to make better; to become better
in - prep. inside; held by; contained by; surrounded by; during
incident - n. an event or something that happens
incite - v. to urge or cause an action or emotion, usually something bad or violent
include - v. to have; to make a part of
increase - v. to make more in size or amount
independent - ad. not influenced by or controlled by another or others; free;
separate
individual - n. one person
industry - n. any business that produces goods or provides services; the work and
related activity in factories and offices; all organizations involved in manufacturing
infect - v. to make sick with something that causes disease
inflation - n. a continuing rise in prices while the value of money goes down
influence - v. to have an effect on someone or something; to cause change
inform - v. to tell; to give knowledge to
information - n. knowledge; facts
inject - v. to force a fluid into, such as putting medicine or drugs into the body
through the skin
injure - v. to cause harm or damage to a person or animal
innocent - ad. not guilty of a crime; not responsible for a bad action
insane - ad. mentally sick
insect - n. a very small creature, usually with many legs and sometimes with wings
inspect - v. to look at something carefully; to examine, especially by an expert
instead - ad. in the place of; taking the place of
instrument - n. a tool or device designed to do something or to make something
insult - v. to say something or to do something that makes another person angry or
dishonored
intelligence - n. the ability to think or learn; information gathered by spying
intelligent - ad. quick to understand or learn
intense - ad. very strong; extremely serious
interest - n. what is important to someone ("He acted to protect his interests." "She
had a great interest in painting."); a share in owning a business; money paid for the
use of money borrowed
interfere - v. to get in the way of; to work against; to take part in the activities of
others, especially when not asked to do so
international - ad. of or about more than one nation or many nations; of the whole
world
intervene - v. to come between; to come between in order to settle or solve
invade - v. to enter an area or country by force with an army
invent - v. to plan and make something never made before; to create a new thing or
way of doing something
invest - v. to give money to a business or organization with the hope of making
more money
investigate - v. to study or examine all information about an event, situation or
charge; to search for the truth
invite - v. to ask someone to take part in or join an event, organization or gathering
involve - v. to take part in; to become a part of; to include
iron - n. a strong, hard metal used to make machines and tools
island - n. a land area with water all around it
issue - n. an important problem or subject that people are discussing or arguing
about
it - pro. a thing, place, event or idea that is being spoken about ("The sky is blue,
but it also has a few white clouds.")
J
jail - n. a prison for those waiting to be tried for a crime or for those serving sentences
for crimes that are not serious
jewel - n. a valuable stone, such as a diamond or emerald
job - n. the work that one does to earn money
join - v. to put together or come together; to become part of or a member of
joint - ad. shared by two or more
joke - n. something done or said to cause others to laugh
judge - v. to form an opinion about; to decide a question, especially a legal one; n. a
public official who decides problems of law in a court
jump - v. to push down on the
feet and move up quickly into the air
jury - n. a group of people chosen to decide what is true in a trial
just - ad. only ("Help me for just a minute."); very shortly before or after the
present ("He just left."); at the same time ("He left just as I came in."); what is
right or fair ("The law is just, in my opinion.")
K
keep - v. to possess; to have for oneself
kick - v. to hit with the foot
kidnap - v. to seize and take away by force
kill - v. to make dead; to cause to die
kind - n. sort ("What kind of dog is that?"); ad. gentle; caring; helpful
kiss - v. to touch with the mouth to show love or honor
knife - n. a tool or weapon used to cut
know - v. to understand something as correct; to have the facts about; to recognize
someone because you have met and talked together before
knowledge - n. that which is known; learning or understanding
L
labor - n. work; workers as a group
laboratory - n. a room or place where experiments in science are done
lack - v. to be without; n. the condition of needing, wanting or not having
lake - n. a large area of fresh water surrounded by land
land - v. to come to the earth from the air ("Airplanes land at airports."); n. the part
of the earth not covered by water; the ground
language - n. words and their use; what people speak in a country, nation or group
large - ad. big; being of more than usual size, amount or number; opposite small
last - v. to continue ("The talks will last three days."); ad. after all others; the only
one remaining ("She is the last person in line.")
late - ad. after the correct time; near the end; opposite early
laugh - v. to make sounds to express pleasure or happy feelings
launch - v. to put into operation; to begin; to send into the air or space
law - n. all or any rules made by a government
lead - v. to show the way; to command; to control; to go first
leak - v. to come out of or to escape through a small opening or hole (usually a gas
or liquid)
learn - v. to get knowledge about; to come to know a fact or facts
leave - v. to go away from; to let something stay where it is
left - ad. on the side that is toward the west when one is facing north; opposite
right
legal - ad. of or in agreement with the law
legislature - n. a government lawmaking group
lend - v. to permit someone to use a thing temporarily; to make a loan of money
less - ad. smaller in amount; not as much
let - v. to permit to do or to be; to make possible
letter - n. a message written on paper; a communication in writing sent to another
person
level - n. the amount or height that something reaches or rises to; the position of
something or someone
liberal - ad. one who usually supports social progress or change
lie - v. to have one's body on the ground or other surface; to say something that one
knows is not true
life - n. the time between being born and dying; opposite death; all living things
lift - v. to take or bring up to a higher place or level
light - n. a form of energy that affects the eyes so that one is able to see; anything
that produces light; ad. bright; clear; not heavy
lightning - n. light produced by electricity in the air, usually during a storm
like - v. to be pleased with; to have good feelings for someone or something; ad. in
the same way as; similar to
limit - v. to restrict to a number or amount; n. the greatest amount or number
permitted
line - n. a long, thin mark on a surface; a number of people or things organized; one
after another; the edge of an area protected by military forces
link - v. to connect; to unite one thing or event with another; n. a relation between
two or more things, situations or events
liquid - n. a substance that is not a solid or gas, and can move freely, like water
list - v. to put in writing a number of names of people or things; n. a written series
of names or things
listen - v. to try to hear
literature - n. all the poems, stories and writings of a period of time or of a country
little - ad. not tall or big; a small amount
live - v. to have life; to exist; ad. having life; alive
load - v. to put objects on or into a vehicle or container; n. that which is carried
loan - n. money borrowed that usually must be returned with interest payments;
something borrowed
local - ad. about or having to do with one place
lonely - ad. feeling alone and wanting friends; visited by few or no people ("a lonely
man")
long - ad. not short; measuring from beginning to end; measuring much; for much
time
look - v. to turn the eyes toward so as to see; to search or hunt for; to seem to be
lose - v. to have no longer; to not find; to fail to keep; to be defeated
loud - ad. having a strong sound; full of sound or noise
love - v. to like very much; to feel a strong, kind emotion (sometimes involving sex);
n. a strong, kind emotion for someone or something; opposite hate
low - ad. not high or tall; below the normal height; close to the ground
loyal - ad. showing strong friendship and support for someone or something
luck - n. something that happens by chance
M
machine - n. a device with moving parts used to do work
magazine - n. a publication of news, stories, pictures or other information
mail - n. letters, papers and other things sent through an official system, such as a
post office
main - ad. the most important or largest
major - ad. great in size, importance or amount
majority - n. the greater number; more than half
make - v. to produce; to create; to build; to do something or to carry out an action;
to cause to be or to become
male - n. a man or boy; the sex that is the father of children; ad. of or about men
man - n. an adult male human
manufacture - v. to make goods in large amounts
many - ad. a large number or amount of
map - n. a picture of the earth's surface or a part of it
march - v. to walk in a group like soldiers; to walk together in a large group to
protest about something
mark - v. to make a sign or cut on something
market - n. a place or area where goods are sold, bought or traded; an economic
system in which the prices of things are decided by how many there are and how
much money people are willing to pay for them
marry - v. to join a man and woman together as husband and wife; to become
husband and wife (usually in a religious or civil ceremony)
mass - n. an amount of matter having no special form and usually of a large size
mate - v. to bring together a male and a female to create another creature
material - n. the substance, substances or matter of which something is made or
from which something can be made, such as wood, cloth or stone; anything that can
be made into something else
mathematics - n. the science dealing with amounts, sizes and shapes, as explained
by numbers and signs
matter - n. anything that can be seen or felt; what things are made of
may - v. a word used with an action word to mean permit or possible ("May I go?"
"They may leave tomorrow.")
mayor - n. the chief official of a city or town government
meal - n. food eaten to satisfy hunger, such as dinner
mean - v. to want to; to give the idea of; to have the idea of
measure - v. to learn the amount, size or distance of something; n. an action taken;
a legislative proposal
meat - n. the part of a dead animal used for food
media - n. all public information organizations, including newspapers, television and
radio
medicine - n. a substance or drug used to treat disease or pain; the science or study
of treating and curing disease or improving health
meet - v. to come together with someone or something at the same time and place
melt - v. to make a solid into a liquid by heating it
member - n. one of a group
memorial - n. something done or made to honor the memory of a person or event
memory - n. a picture in the mind of past events; the ability to remember; a thing
remembered
mental - ad. about or having to do with the mind
mercy - n. kindness toward those who should be punished; the power to be kind or
to pardon
message - n. written or spoken news or information; a note from one person to
another person or group
metal - n. a hard substance such as iron, steel or gold
method - n. the way something is done
microscope - n. a device used to make very small things look larger so they can be
studied
middle - n. the center; a place or time of equal distance from both sides or ends; ad.
in the center
militant - n. someone active in trying to cause political change, often by the use of
force or violence
military - n. the armed forces of a nation or group; ad. of or about the armed forces
milk - n. the white liquid produced by female animals to feed their young
mind - n. the thinking, feeling part of a person
mine - v. to dig useful or valuable substances out of the earth; n. a place in the earth
where such substances are found; a bomb placed under the ground or under water
so it cannot be seen
mineral - n. a substance found in nature that is not an animal or a plant, such as coal
or salt
minister - n. a member of a cabinet; a high government official ("prime minister,"
"foreign minister")
minor - ad. small in size; of little importance
minority - n. the smaller number; opposite majority
minute - n. a measure of time; one of the sixty equal parts of an hour; sixty seconds
miss - v. to fail to hit, see, reach or meet
missile - n. any weapon that can be thrown or fired through the air and explodes
when it reaches its target
missing - ad. lost; not found
mistake - n. a wrong action or decision; an action done without the knowledge that
it was wrong
mix - v. to put different things together to make one thing
mob - n. a large group of wild or angry people
model - n. an example; something, usually small, made to show how something will
look or work
moderate - ad. not extreme
modern - ad. of the present or very recent time; the most improved
money - n. pieces of metal or paper used to pay for things
month - n. one of the twelve periods of time into which a year is divided
moon - n. the bright object often seen in the night sky that orbits the earth about
every twenty-nine days
moral - ad. concerning what is right or wrong in someone's actions
more - ad. greater in size or amount
morning - n. the early part of the day, from sunrise until noon
most - ad. greatest in size or amount
mother - n. the female parent; a woman who has a child or children
motion - n. a movement; a continuing change of position or place
mountain - n. a part of the earth's surface that rises high above the area around it
mourn - v. to express or feel sadness
move - v. to change position; to put or keep in motion; to go
movement - n. the act of moving or a way of moving; a series of acts or efforts to
reach a goal
movie - n. a motion picture; a film
much - ad. great in amount
murder - v. to kill another person illegally; n. the crime of killing another person
music - n. the making of sounds by singing or using a musical instrument
must - v. a word used with an action word to mean necessary ("You must go to
school.")
mystery - n. something that is not or cannot be explained or understood; a secret
N
name - v. to appoint; to nominate; to give a name to; n. a word by which a person,
animal or thing is known or called
narrow - ad. limited in size or amount; not wide; having a short distance from one
side to the other
nation - n. a country, together with its social and political systems
native - n. someone who was born in a place, not one who moved there
natural - ad. of or about nature; normal; common to its kind
nature - n. all the plants, animals and other things on earth not created by humans;
events or processes not caused by humans
navy - n. the part of a country's military force trained to fight at sea
near - ad. not far; close to
necessary - ad. needed to get a result or effect; required
need - v. to require; to want; to be necessary to have or to do
negotiate - v. to talk about a problem or situation to find a common solution
neither - ad. not one or the other of two
neutral - ad. not supporting one side or the other in a dispute
never - ad. at no time; not ever
new - ad. not existing before; not known before; recently made, built, bought or
grown; another; different
news - n. information about any recent events, especially as reported by the media
next - ad. coming immediately after; nearest
nice - ad. pleasing; good; kind
night - n. the time between when the sun goes down and when it rises, when there
is little or no light
no - ad. used to reject or to refuse; not any; not at all
noise - n. sound, especially when loud
nominate - v. to name someone as a candidate for an election; to propose a person
for an office or position
noon - n. the middle of the day; twelve o'clock in the daytime
normal - n. the usual condition, amount or form; ad. usual; what is expected
north - n. the direction to the left of a person facing the rising sun
not - ad. a word showing that something is denied or untrue ("She is not going.")
note - v. to talk about something already known; n. a word or words written to help
a person remember; a short letter
nothing - n. not anything; no thing
now - ad. at this time; immediately
nowhere - ad. not in, to or at any place
nuclear - ad. of or about the energy produced by splitting atoms or bringing them
together; of or about weapons that explode by using energy from atoms
number - n. a word or sign used to show the order or amount of things
O
obey - v. to act as one is ordered to act
object - v. to show that one does not like or approve; to protest; n. something not
alive that can be seen or touched
observe - v. to watch; to look at carefully; to celebrate or honor something ("They
will observe the anniversary of the day she was born.")
occupy - v. to take and hold or to control by force
ocean - n. the area of salt water that covers almost seventy-five percent of the
earth's surface; any of the five main divisions of this water
of - prep. made from; belonging to; about; connected to; included among
off - ad. away; at a distance; condition when something is no longer operating or
continuing; not on; not connected
offensive - n. a military campaign of attack; ad. having to do with attacking
offer - v. to present or propose; n. the act of presenting or proposing; that which is
presented or proposed
office - n. a room or building where business or work is done; a public position to
which one is elected or appointed
officer - n. a person in the military who commands others; any person who is a
member of a police force
official - n. a person with power in an organization; a representative of an
organization or government; ad. of or about an office; approved by the government
or someone in power
often - ad. many times
oil - n. a thick liquid that does not mix with water and that burns easily; a black
liquid taken from the ground and used as fuel
old - ad. not young or new; having lived or existed for many years
on - prep. above and held up by; touching the upper surface of ("The book is on the
table."); supported by ("He is on his feet."); about ("The report on the meeting is
ready."); at the time of ("He left on Wednesday.")
once - ad. one time only
only - ad. being the single one or ones; no more than ("We have only two dollars.")
open - v. to start ("They opened talks."); ad. not closed; not secret
operate - v. to do work or a job; to cut into the body for medical reasons
opinion - n. a belief based on one's own ideas and thinking
oppose - v. to be against; to fight against
opposite - ad. different as possible; completely different from; exactly the other way
("North is the opposite direction from south.")
oppress - v. to make others suffer; to control by the use of unjust and cruel force or
power
or - conj. giving another of two choices; giving the last of several choices
orbit - v. to travel in space around a planet or other object; n. the path or way an
object travels in space around another object or planet
order - v. to give a command; to tell someone what to do; n. a command; the correct
or normal way things are organized; a peaceful situation in which people obey laws
organize - v. to put in order; to put together into a system
other - ad. different; of another kind; the remaining one or ones of two or more
("That man is short; the other is tall.")
our - ad. of or belonging to us
oust - v. to force to leave; to remove by force
out - ad. away from the inside; opposite of in
over - conj. above; covering; across, in or on every part of ("all over the world")
overthrow - v. to remove from power; to defeat or end by force
owe - v. to pay or have to repay (usually money) in return for something received
own - v. to have or possess for oneself
P
pain - n. a hurt or suffering somewhere in the body
paint - v. to cover with a liquid color; to make a picture with liquid colors; n. a
colored liquid used to cover or protect a surface
pan - n. a metal container used for cooking
paper - n. a thin, flat material made from plants or cloth often used for writing
parachute - n. a device that permits a person or thing to fall slowly from an airplane
or helicopter to the ground
parade - n. a group of people and vehicles moving together to celebrate a special
event or anniversary
pardon - v. to forgive for a crime and release from punishment
parent - n. a father or mother
parliament - n. a government lawmaking group
part - n. something less than the whole; not all of something
party - n. a group of people working together for a political purpose; a group of
people or friends gathered together for enjoyment
pass - v. to go by or move around something; to move along; to cause or permit to
go
passenger - n. a person travelling by airplane, train, boat or car who is not the pilot
or driver
passport - n. a document permitting a person to travel to another country
past - n. the time gone by; the time before; ad. recent; immediately before; former
path - n. a narrow way for walking; a way along which something moves
patient - n. a person being treated by a doctor for a health problem
pay - v. to give money for work done or for something bought
peace - n. the condition of freedom from war, fighting or noise; rest; quiet
people - n. any group of persons; all the persons of a group, race, religion or nation
("the American people")
percent - n. a part of every hundred ("Ten is ten percent of one hundred.")
perfect - ad. complete or correct in every way; completely right or good; without
mistakes
perform - v. to speak, dance or sing in front of others
period - n. an amount of time within events, restrictions or conditions
permanent - ad. never changing; lasting for a very long time or for all time
permit - v. to let; to make possible
person - n. a man, woman or child
physical - ad. of the body
physics - n. the study of motion, matter and energy
picture - n. something that shows what another thing looks like; an idea or
representation of something as seen by the eye; a painting; what is made with a
camera
piece - n. a part of something larger
pig - n. a farm animal used for its meat
pilot - n. one who guides or flies an airplane or helicopter
pipe - n. a long, round piece of material used to move liquid or gas
place - v. to put something somewhere; n. an area or a part of an area; space where
a person or thing is; any room, building, town or country
plan - v. to organize or develop an idea or method of acting or doing something
("They plan to have a party."); n. an organized or developed idea or method ("The
plan will not work.")
planet - n. a large object in space that orbits the sun ("Earth is a planet.")
plant - v. to put into the ground to grow; n. a living growth from the ground which
gets its food from air, water and earth
plastic - n. a material made from chemicals that can be formed and made into things
play - v. to have fun; to not work; to take part in a sport; to make music on an
instrument; n. a story acted in a theater
please - v. to make one happy; to give enjoyment
plenty - n. all that is needed; a large enough amount
plot - v. to make secret plans; n. a secret plan to do something wrong or illegal
poem - n. words and their sounds organized in a special way to express emotions
point - v. to aim one's finger toward; to aim; n. the sharp end of something
poison - n. a substance that can destroy life or damage health
police - n. a government agency responsible for guarding the public, keeping order,
and making sure people obey the law; members of that agency
policy - n. an established set of plans or goals used to develop and make decisions
in politics, economics or business
politics - n. the activities of government and of those who are in public office
pollute - v. to release dangerous or unpleasant substances into the air, soil or water
poor - n. people with little or no money; ad. lacking money or goods; of bad quality
popular - ad. liked by many people; generally approved by the public
population - n. all the people in a place, city or country
port - n. a city where ships load or unload goods; a place on a coast where ships can
be safe from a storm
position - n. a place; the way of holding the body; the way a thing is set or placed; a
job (or level of a job) in an organization
possess - v. to have; to own; to control or be controlled by
possible - ad. able to be done; can happen or is expected to happen
postpone - v. to delay action until a later time
pour - v. to flow; to cause to flow
power - n. the ability to control or direct others; control; strength; ruling force;
force or energy used to do work ("Water power turns the wheel.")
praise - v. to say good things about; to approve
pray - v. to make a request to a god or spirit; to praise a god or spirit
pregnant - ad. carrying a child within the body before it is born; expecting to give
birth to a baby
present - v. to offer for consideration ("We will present our idea to the
committee."); n. a gift ("I gave them a present for their anniversary."); now ("The
present time is a good time."); ad. to be at a place ("I was present at school
yesterday.")
president - n. the chief official of a country that is a republic; the leader of an
organization
press - v. to urge strongly; n. newspapers, magazines and other publications
pressure - n. the force produced when something is pushed down or against
something else
prevent - v. to keep or stop from going or happening
price - n. the amount of money for which anything is bought, sold or offered for sale
prison - n. a place where a person is kept as punishment for a crime
private - ad. of or about a person or group that is secret; opposite public
prize - n. something offered or won in a competition; something of value that one
must work hard for to get
probably - ad. a good chance of taking place; a little more than possible
problem - n. a difficult question or situation with an unknown or unclear answer
process - n. an operation or series of changes leading to a desired result
produce - v. to make; to create; to cause something to be; to manufacture
profession - n. a job that requires special training
professor - n. a teacher at a
college or university
profit - n. money gained from a business activity after paying all costs of that
activity
program - n. a plan of action; the different events or parts of a meeting or show
progress - n. movement forward or toward improvement or a goal
project - n. a planned effort to do something
propaganda - n. ideas or information used to influence opinions
property - n. anything owned by someone such as land, buildings or goods
propose - v. to present or offer for consideration
protect - v. to guard; to defend; to prevent from being harmed or damaged
protest - v. to speak against; to object
prove - v. to show to be true
provide - v. to give something needed or wanted
public - ad. of or about all the people in a community or country; opposite private
publication - n. something that is published such as a book, newspaper or magazine
publish - v. to make public something that is written; to include something in a
book, newspaper or magazine
pull - v. to use force to move something toward the person or thing using the force;
opposite push
pump - v. to force a gas or liquid up, into or through
punish - v. to cause pain, suffering or loss for doing something bad or illegal
purchase - v. to buy with money or with something of equal value; n. that which is
bought
pure - ad. free from anything that is different or that reduces value; clean
purpose - n. the reason or desired effect for doing something; goal
push - v. to use force to move something away from the person or thing using the
force; opposite pull
put - v. to place; to set in position
Q
quality - n. that which something is known to have or be ("An important quality of steel
is its strength."); amount of value or excellence ("Their goods are of the highest quality.")
question - v. to ask; to express wonder or disbelief; n. a sentence or word used in
asking for information; a problem; an issue to be discussed
quick - ad. fast
quiet - ad. with little or no noise; having little or no movement; calm
R
race - v. to run; to take part in a competition to decide who or what can move fastest;
to take part in a campaign for political office; n. one of the major groups that humans
can be divided into because of a common physical similarity, such as skin color
radar - n. a device that uses radio signals to learn the position or speed of objects
that may be too far away to be seen
radiation - n. waves of energy from something that produces heat or light; energy
from a nuclear substance, which can be dangerous
radio - n. the system of sending and receiving signals or sounds through the air
without wires
raid - v. to make a sudden attack; n. a sudden attack carried out as an act of war, or
for the purpose of seizing or stealing something
railroad - n. a road for trains; a company that operates such a road and its stations
and equipment
rain - n. water falling from the sky
raise - v. to lift up; to move to a higher position; to cause to grow; to increase
rare - ad. not common; not usual; not often
rate - n. speed; a measure of how quickly or how often something happens; the
price of any thing or service that is bought or sold
reach - v. to put a hand toward; to arrive at; to come to
react - v. to act as a result of or in answer to
read - v. to look at and understand the meaning of written words or numbers
ready - ad. prepared; completed; organized; willing
real - ad. true; truly existing; not false
realistic - ad. in agreement with the way things are
reason - n. the cause for a belief or act; purpose; something that explains
reasonable - ad. ready to listen to reasons or ideas; not extreme; ready or willing to
compromise
rebel - v. to act against a government or power, often with force; to refuse to obey;
n. one who opposes or fights against the government of his or her country
receive - v. to get or accept something given, offered or sent
recent - ad. a short time ago
recession - n. a temporary reduction in economic activity, when industries produce
less and many workers lose their jobs
recognize - v. to know or remember something or someone that was known, known
about or seen before; to accept another nation as independent and establish
diplomatic ties with its government
record - v. to write something in order to have it for future use; to put sound or
pictures in a form that can be kept and heard or seen again; n. a writing that shows
proof or facts about something
recover - v. to get again something that was lost, stolen or taken away ("The police
recovered the stolen money."); to return to normal health or normal conditions
("She is expected to recover from the operation.")
red - ad. having the color like that of blood
reduce - v. to make less or smaller in number, size or amount; to cut
reform - v. to make better by changing; to improve; n. a change to a better
condition
refugee - n. a person who has been forced to flee because of unjust treatment,
danger or war
refuse - v. to reject; to not accept, give or do something
regret - n. a feeling of sadness or sorrow about something that is done or that
happens
reject - v. to refuse to accept, use or believe
relations - n. understandings or ties between nations; members of the same family;
people connected by marriage or family ties
release - v. to free; to permit to go; to permit to be known or made public
religion - n. a belief in, or the honoring of, a god or gods
remain - v. to stay in a place after others leave; to stay the same
remains - n. a dead body
remember - v. to think about the past; opposite forget
remove - v. to take away or take off; to put an end to; to take out of a position or
office
repair - n. work done to fix something
repeat - v. to say or do again
report - v. to tell about; to give the results of a study or investigation; n. the story
about an event; the results of a study or investigation; a statement in which the
facts may not be confirmed
represent - v. to act in the place of someone else; to substitute for; to serve as an
example
repress - v. to control or to restrict freedoms by force
request - v. to ask for; n. the act of asking for
require - v. to need or demand as necessary
rescue - v. to free from danger or evil
research - n. a careful study to discover correct information
resign - v. to leave a position, job or office
resist - v. to oppose; to fight to prevent
resolution - n. an official statement of agreement by a group of people, usually
reached by voting
resource - n. anything of value that can be used or sold
responsible - ad. having a duty or job to do ("He is responsible for preparing the
report."); being the cause of ("They were responsible for the accident.")
rest - v. to sit, lie down or sleep to regain strength; n. that which remains; the
others
restrain - v. to keep controlled; to limit action by a person or group
restrict - v. to limit; to prevent from increasing or becoming larger
result - v. to happen from a cause; n. that which follows or is produced by a cause;
effect
retire - v. to leave a job or position because one is old or in poor health
return - v. to go or come back; to bring, give, take or send back
revolt - v. to protest violently; to fight for a change, especially of government
rice - n. a food grain
rich - ad. having much money or goods; having plenty of something
ride - v. to sit on or in and be carried along; to travel by animal, wheeled vehicle,
airplane or boat
right - n. what a person legally and morally should be able to do or have ("It is their
right to vote."); ad. agreeing with the facts; good; correct; opposite wrong; on the
side that is toward the east when one is facing north; opposite left
riot - v. to act with many others in a violent way in a public place; n. a violent action
by a large group of people
rise - v. to go up; to go higher; to increase; to go from a position of sitting or lying
to a position of standing
risk - n. the chance of loss, damage or injury
river - n. a large amount of water that flows across land into another river, a lake or
an ocean
road - n. a long piece of hard ground built between two places so people can walk,
drive or ride easily from one place to the other
rob - v. to take money or property secretly or by force; to steal
rock - n. a hard piece of mineral matter
rocket - n. a device shaped like a tube that moves through air or space by burning
gases and letting them escape from the back or bottom, sometimes used as a
weapon
roll - v. to turn over and over; to move like a ball
room - n. a separate area within a building with its own walls
root - n. the part of a plant that is under the ground and takes nutrients from the
soil
rope - n. a long, thick piece of material made from thinner pieces of material, used
for tying
rough - ad. not flat or smooth; having an uneven surface; violent; not made well
round - ad. having the shape of a ball or circle
rub - v. to move something over the surface of another thing
rubber - n. a substance made from the liquid of trees with the same name, or a
similar substance made from chemicals
ruin - v. to damage severely; to destroy
rule - v. to govern or control; to decide; n. a statement or an order that says how
something must be done
run - v. to move quickly by steps faster than those used for walking
S
sabotage - v. to damage or destroy as an act against an organization or nation
("The rebels sabotaged the railroad.")
sacrifice - v. to do without something or to suffer a loss for a belief, idea, goal or
another person
sad - ad. not happy
safe - ad. away from harm or danger
sail - v. to travel by boat or ship
sailor - n. a person involved in sailing a boat or ship
salt - n. a white substance found in sea water and in the ground, used to affect the
taste of food
same - ad. not different; not changed; like another or others
sand - n. extremely small pieces of crushed rock found in large amounts in deserts
and on coasts
satellite - n. a small object in space that moves around a larger object; an object
placed in orbit around the earth
satisfy - v. to give or provide what is desired, needed or demanded
save - v. to make safe; to remove from harm; to keep for future use
say - v. to speak; to express in words
school - n. a place for education; a place where people go to learn
science - n. the study of nature and the actions of natural things, and the knowledge
gained about them
sea - n. a large area of salt water, usually part of an ocean
search - v. to look for carefully
season - n. one of the four periods of the year that is based on the earth's position
toward the sun (spring, summer, autumn, winter); a period of time based on
different weather conditions ("dry season", "rainy season"); a period during the
year when something usually happens ("baseball season")
seat - n. a thing to sit on; a place to sit or the right to sit there ("a seat in
parliament")
second - ad. the one that comes after the first
secret - n. something known only to a few and kept from general knowledge; ad.
hidden from others; known only to a few
security - n. freedom from danger or harm; protection; measures necessary to
protect a person or place ("Security was increased in the city.")
see - v. to know or sense through the eyes; to understand or know
seed - n. the part of a plant from which new plants grow
seek(ing) - v. to search for ("They are seeking a cure for cancer."); to try to get
("She is seeking election to public office."); to plan to do ("Electric power
companies are seeking to reduce their use of coal.")
seem - v. to appear to be ("She seems to be in good health.")
seize - v. to take quickly by force; to take control of quickly; to arrest
self - n. all that which makes one person different from others
sell - v. to give something in exchange for money
Senate - n. the smaller of the two groups in the governments of some countries,
such as in the United States Congress
send - v. to cause to go; to permit to go; to cause to be carried, taken or directed to
or away from a place
sense - v. to come to know about by feeling, believing or understanding; n. any of
the abilities to see, hear, taste, smell or feel
sentence - v. to declare the punishment for a crime; n. the punishment for a crime
separate - v. to set or keep people, things or ideas away from or independent from
others; ad. not together or connected; different
series - n. a number of similar things or events that follow one after another in time,
position or order
serious - ad. important; needing careful consideration; dangerous
serve - v. to work as an official; to be employed by the government; to assist or
help
service - n. an organization or system that provides something for the public
("Schools and roads are services paid for by taxes."); a job that an organization or
business can do for money; military organizations such as an army, navy or air
force; a religious ceremony
set - v. to put in place or position; to establish a time, price or limit
settle - v. to end (a dispute); to agree about (a problem); to make a home in a new
place
several - ad. three or more, but not many
severe - ad. not gentle; causing much pain, sadness or damage
sex - n. either the male or female group into which all people and animals are
divided because of their actions in producing young; the physical activity by which
humans and animals can produce young
shake - v. to move or cause to move in short, quick movements
shape - v. to give form to; n. the form of something, especially how it looks
share - v. to give part of something to another or others; n. a part belonging to,
given to or owned by a single person or a group; any one of the equal parts of
ownership of a business or company
sharp - ad. having a thin edge or small point that can cut or hurt; causing hurt or
pain
she - pro. the girl or woman who is being spoken about
sheep - n. a farm animal used for its meat and hair
shell - v. to fire artillery; n. a metal container that is fired from a large gun and
explodes when it reaches its target; a hard outside cover
shelter - v. to protect or give protection to; n. something that gives protection; a
place of safety
shine - v. to aim a light; to give bright light; to be bright; to clean to make bright
ship - v. to transport; n. a large boat
shock - v. to cause to feel sudden surprise or fear; n. something that greatly affects
the mind or emotions; a powerful shake, as from an earthquake
shoe - n. a covering for the foot
shoot - v. to cause a gun or other weapon to send out an object designed to kill; to
use a gun
short - ad. lasting only for a small period of time; not long; opposite tall
should - v. used with another verb (action word) to show responsibility ("We should
study."), probability ("The talks should begin soon."), or that something is believed
to be a good idea ("Criminals should be punished.")
shout - v. to speak very loudly
show - v. to make something be seen; to make known; n. a play or story presented
in a theater, or broadcast on radio or television, for enjoyment or education;
something organized to be seen by the public
shrink - v. to make or become less in size, weight or value
sick - ad. suffering physically or mentally with a disease or other problem; not in
good health
sickness - n. the condition of being in bad health
side - n. the outer surfaces of an object that are not the top or bottom; parts away
from the middle; either the right or left half of the body
sign - v. to write one's name; n. a mark or shape used to mean something; evidence
that something exists or will happen; a flat piece of material with writing that gives
information
signal - v. to send a message by signs; n. an action or movement that sends a
message
silence - v. to make quiet; to stop from speaking or making noise; n. a lack of noise
or sound
silver - n. a valued white metal
similar - ad. like something else but not exactly the same
simple - ad. easy to understand or do; not difficult or complex
since - prep. from a time in the past until now ("I have known her since we went to
school together.")
sing - v. to make music sounds with the voice
single - ad. one only
sink - v. to go down into water or other liquid
sister - n. a female with the same father or mother as another person
sit - v. to rest on the lower part of the body without the support of the legs; to
become seated
situation - n. the way things are during a period of time
size - n. the space occupied by something; how long, wide or high something is
skeleton - n. all the bones of a human or other animal together in their normal
positions
skill - n. the ability gained from training or experience
skin - n. the outer covering of humans and most animals
sky - n. the space above the earth
slave - n. a person owned or controlled by another
sleep - v. to rest the body and mind with the eyes closed
slide - v. to move smoothly over a surface
slow - v. to reduce the speed of; ad. not fast in moving, talking or other activities
small - ad. little in size or amount; few in number; not important; opposite large
smash - v. to break or be broken into small pieces by force; to hit or move with
force
smell - v. to sense through the nose; n. something sensed by the nose ("the smell of
food cooking")
smoke - v. to use cigarettes or other tobacco products by burning them and
breathing in the smoke; n. that which can be seen rising into the air like a cloud
from something burning
smooth - ad. having a level surface; opposite rough
snow - n. soft, white pieces of frozen water that fall from the sky, usually in winter
or when the air temperature is very cold
so - ad. in such a way that ("He held the flag so all could see it."); also; too ("She
left early, and so did we."); very ("I am so sick."); as a result ("They were sick, so
they could not come."); conj. in order that; for the purpose of ("Come early so we
can discuss the plans.")
social - ad. of or about people or a group
soft - ad. not hard; easily shaped; pleasing to touch; not loud
soil - n. earth in which plants grow
soldier - n. a person in the army
solid - ad. having a hard shape with no empty spaces inside; strong; not in the form
of a liquid or gas
solve - v. to find an answer; to settle
some - ad. of an amount or number or part not
stated; not all
son - n. a person's male child
soon - ad. not long after the present time; quickly
sort - n. any group of people or things that are the same or are similar in some way;
a kind of something
sound - n. fast-moving waves of energy that affect the ear and result in hearing; that
which is heard
south - n. the direction to the right of a person facing the rising sun
space - n. the area outside the earth's atmosphere where the sun, moon, planets and
stars are; the area between or inside things
speak - v. to talk; to say words with the mouth; to express one's thoughts to others
and exchange ideas; to give a speech to a group
special - ad. of a different or unusual kind; not for general use; better or more
important than others of the same kind
speech - n. a talk given to a group of people
speed - v. to make something go or move faster; n. the rate at which something
moves or travels; the rate at which something happens or is done
spend - v. to give as payment; to use ("He spends much time studying.")
spill - v. to cause or permit liquid to flow out, usually by accident
spirit - n. the part of a human that is not physical and is connected to thoughts and
emotions; the part of a person that is believed to remain alive after death
split - v. to separate into two or more parts; to divide or break into parts
sport - n. any game or activity of competition involving physical effort or skill
spread - v. to become longer or wider; to make or become widely known
spring - n. the time of the year between winter and summer
spy - v. to steal or get information secretly; n. one who watches others secretly; a
person employed by a government to get secret information about another country
square - n. a flat shape having four equal sides
stab - v. to cut or push into or through with a pointed weapon
stand - v. to move into or be in a position in which only the feet are on a surface; to
be in one position or place
star - n. a mass of gas that usually appears as a small light in the sky at night, but is
not a planet; a famous person, usually an actor or singer
start - v. to begin; to make something begin
starve - v. to suffer or die from a lack of food
state - v. to say; to declare; n. a political part of a nation
station - n. a place of special work or purpose ("a police station"); a place where
passengers get on or off trains or buses; a place for radio or television broadcasts
statue - n. a form of a human, animal or other creature usually made of stone, wood
or metal
stay - v. to continue to be where one is; to remain; to not leave; to live for a time
("They stayed in New York for two years.")
steal - v. to take without permission or paying
steam - n. the gas that comes from hot water
steel - n. iron made harder and stronger by mixing it with other substances
step - v. to move by lifting one foot and placing it in a new position; n. the act of
stepping; one of a series of actions designed to reach a goal
stick - v. to attach something to another thing using a substance that will hold them
together; to become fixed in one position so that movement is difficult ("Something
is making the door stick."); n. a thin piece of wood
still - ad. not moving ("The man was standing still."); until the present or a stated time
("Was he still there?"); even so; although ("The job was difficult, but she still wanted to
do it.")
stone - n. a small piece of rock
stop - v. to prevent any more movement or action; to come or bring to an end
store - v. to keep or put away for future use; n. a place where people buy things
storm - n. violent weather, including strong winds and rain or snow
story - n. the telling or writing of an event, either real or imagined
stove - n. a heating device used for cooking
straight - ad. continuing in one direction without turns
strange - ad. unusual; not normal; not known
street - n. a road in a city, town or village
stretch - v. to extend for a distance; to pull on to make longer or wider
strike - v. to hit with force; to stop work as a way to seek better conditions, more
pay or to make other demands
strong - ad. having much power; not easily broken, damaged or destroyed
structure - n. the way something is built, made or organized; a system that is
formed or organized in a special way; a building
struggle - v. to try with much effort; to fight with; n. a great effort; a fight
study - v. to make an effort to gain knowledge by using the mind; to examine
carefully
stupid - ad. not able to learn much; not intelligent
subject - n. the person or thing being discussed, studied or written about
submarine - n. an underwater ship
substance - n. the material of which something is made (a solid, liquid or gas)
substitute - v. to put or use in place of another; n. a person or thing put or used in
place of another
subversion - n. an attempt to weaken or destroy a political system or government,
usually secretly
succeed - v. to reach a goal or thing desired; to produce a planned result
such - ad. of this or that kind; of the same kind as; similar to
sudden - ad. not expected; without warning; done or carried out quickly or without
preparation
suffer - v. to feel pain in the body or mind; to receive or experience hurt or sadness
sugar - n. a sweet substance made from liquids taken from plants
suggest - v. to offer or propose something to think about or consider
summer - n. the warmest time of the year, between spring and autumn
sun - n. the huge star in the sky that provides heat and light to earth
supervise - v. to direct and observe the work of others
supply - v. to give; to provide; n. the amount of something that can be given or sold
to others
support - v. to carry the weight of; to hold up or in position; to agree with others
and help them reach a goal; to approve
suppose - v. to believe, think or imagine ("I suppose you are right."); to expect ("It
is supposed to rain tonight.")
suppress - v. to put down or to keep down by force; to prevent information from
being known publicly
sure - ad. very probable; with good reason to believe; true without question
surface - n. the outer side or top of something ("The rocket landed on the surface of
the moon.")
surplus - n. an amount that is more than is needed; extra; ("That country has a trade
surplus. It exports more than it imports.")
surprise - v. to cause a feeling of wonder because something is not expected; n.
something not expected; the feeling caused by something not expected
surrender - v. to give control of oneself or one's property to another or others; to
stop fighting and admit defeat
surround - v. to form a circle around; to be in positions all around someone or
something
survive - v. to remain alive during or after a dangerous situation
suspect - v. to imagine or believe that a person is guilty of something bad or illegal;
n. a person believed to be guilty
suspend - v. to cause to stop for a period of time
swallow - v. to take into the stomach through the mouth
swear in - v. to put an official into office by having him or her promise to carry out
the duties of that office ("The chief justice will swear in the president.")
sweet - ad. tasting pleasant, like sugar
swim - v. to move through water by making motions with the arms and legs
sympathy - n. a sharing of feelings or emotions with another person, usually feelings
of sadness
system - n. a method of organizing or doing something by following rules or a plan;
a group of connected things or parts working together for a common purpose or
goal
T
take - v. to put a hand or hands around something and hold it, often to move it
to another place; to carry something ; to seize; to capture; to begin to be in control
("The president takes office tomorrow.")
talk - v. to express thoughts in spoken words; n. a meeting for discussion
tall - ad. higher than others; opposite short
tank - n. a large container for holding liquids; a heavy military vehicle with guns
target - n. any person or object aimed at or fired at
taste - v. to sense through the mouth ("The fruit tastes sweet.")
tax - n. the money a person or business must pay to the government so the
government can provide services
tea - n. a drink made from the plant of the same name
teach - v. to show how to do something; to provide knowledge; to cause to
understand
team - n. a group organized for some purpose, often for sports
tear - v. to pull apart, often by force
tears - n. the fluid that comes out of the eyes while crying
technical - ad. involving machines, processes and materials in industry,
transportation and communications; of or about a very special kind of subject or
thing ("You need technical knowledge to understand how this system works.")
technology - n. the use of scientific knowledge and methods to produce goods and
services
telephone - n. a device or system for sending sounds, especially the voice,
over distances
telescope - n. a device for making objects that are far away appear closer and larger
television - n. a device that receives electronic signals and makes them into pictures
and sounds; the system of sending pictures and sounds by electronic signals over a
distance so others can see and hear them on a receiver
tell - v. to give information; to make known by speaking; to order; to command
temperature - n. the measurement of heat and cold
temporary - ad. lasting only a short time
tense - ad. having fear or concern; dangerous; opposite calm
term - n. a limited period of time during which someone does a job or carries out a
responsibility ("He served two terms in Congress."); the conditions of an agreement
that have been accepted by those involved in it
terrible - ad. very bad; causing terror or fear
territory - n. a large area of land
terror - n. extreme fear; that which causes great fear
terrorist - n. a person who carries out acts of extreme violence as a protest or a way
to influence a government
test - v. to attempt to learn or prove what something is like or how it will act by
studying or doing ("The scientists will test the new engine soon."); n. an attempt to
learn or prove what something is like or how it will act by studying or doing ("The
test of the new engine takes place today."); a group of questions or problems used
to find out a person's knowledge ("The students did well on the language test.")
than - conj. connecting word used to link things that may be similar, but are not
equal ("My sister is taller than I am.")
thank - v. to say that one has a good feeling toward another because that person did
something kind ("I want to thank you for helping me.")
that - ad. showing the person, place or thing being spoken about ("That man is a
soldier."); pro. the person, place or thing being spoken about ("The building that I
saw was very large.")
the - pro. used in front of a name word to show that it is a person or thing that is
known about or is being spoken about
theater - n. a place where movies are shown or plays are performed
them - pro. other people being spoken about
then - ad. at that time; existing; and so
theory - n. a possible explanation of why something exists or how something
happens using experiments or ideas, but which is not yet proven ("Other scientists
are debating his theory about the disappearance of dinosaurs.")
there - ad. in that place or position; to or toward that place
these - pro. of or about the people, places or things nearby that have been spoken
about already
they - pro. those ones being spoken about
thick - ad. having a large distance between two opposite surfaces ("The wall is two
meters thick."); having many parts close together ("The forest is very thick.");
almost solid, such as a liquid that does not flow easily; opposite thin
thin - ad. having a small distance between two opposite surfaces; not fat; not wide;
opposite thick
thing - n. any object
think - v. to produce thoughts; to form ideas in the mind; to consider; to believe
third - ad. coming after two others
this - pro. of or about the person, place or thing nearby that has been spoken about
already
threaten - v. to warn that one will do harm or cause damage
through - prep. in at one end and out at the other; from front to back; from top to
bottom; with the help of; by
throw - v. to cause to go through the air by a movement of the arm
tie - v. to join or hold together with some material; n. anything that joins or unites;
links or connections ("The two nations have strong trade ties.")
time - n. that which is measured in minutes, hours, days and years; a period that can
be identified in hours and minutes and is shown on a clock; a period when an event
should or will take place
tired - ad. having less strength because of work or exercise; needing sleep or rest
to - prep. showing the direction of an action; showing the person or place toward
which an action is directed; showing a goal or purpose
today - n. this day
together - ad. in one group; at the same time or place; in cooperation
tomorrow - n. the day after today
tonight - n. this night
too - ad. also; as well as; more than is necessary
tool - n. any instrument or device designed to help one do work
top - n. the upper edge or surface; the highest part; the cover of something
torture - v. to cause severe pain; n. the act of causing severe pain in order to harm,
to punish or to get information from
total - n. the complete amount
touch - v. to put the hand or fingers on
toward - prep. in the direction of; leading to
town - n. a center where people live, larger than a village but not as large as a city
trade - v. to buy and sell or exchange products or services; n. the activity of buying,
selling or exchanging products or services
tradition - n. a ceremony, activity or belief that has existed for a long time
traffic - n. the movement of people, vehicles or ships along a street, road or
waterway
tragic - ad. extremely sad; terrible
train - v. to teach or learn how to do something; to prepare for an activity; n. an
engine and the cars connected to it that move along a railroad
transport - v. to move goods or people from one place to another
transportation - n. the act or business of moving goods or people
trap - v. to catch or be caught by being tricked; to be unable to move or escape; n. a
device used to catch animals
travel - v. to go from one place to another, usually for a long distance
treason - n. the act of fighting against one's own country or of helping its enemies
treasure - n. a large collection of money, jewels or other things of great value
treat - v. to deal with; to act toward in a special way; to try to cure
treatment - n. the act of treating; the use of medicine to try to cure or make better
treaty - n. a written agreement between two or more nations
tree - n. a very tall plant that is mostly wood, except for its leaves
trial - n. an examination in a court of a question or dispute to decide if a charge is
true
tribe - n. a group of families ruled by a common chief or leader
trick - v. to cheat; to fool a person so as to get something or make him or her do
something
trip - n. a movement from one place to another, usually a long distance
troops - n. a number of soldiers in a large controlled group
trouble - n. that which causes concern, fear, difficulty or problems
truce - n. a temporary halt in fighting agreed to by all sides involved
truck - n. a heavy vehicle used to carry goods
true - ad. correct; not false
trust - v. to believe that someone is honest and will not cause harm
try - v. to make an effort; to take court action against a person to decide if he or she
is guilty or innocent of a crime
tube - n. a long, round structure through which liquids or gases can flow; a long,
thin container in which they can be kept
turn - v. to change direction; to move into a different position; to change color, form
or shape
U
under - prep. below; below the surface of; less than; as called for by a law,
agreement or system ("The river flows under the bridge." "Such action is not
permitted under the law.")
understand - v. to know what is meant; to have knowledge of
unite - v. to join together
universe - n. all of space, including planets and stars
university - n. a place of education that usually includes several colleges and
research organizations
unless - conj. except if it happens; on condition that ("I will not go, unless the rain
stops.")
until - conj. up to a time; before
up - ad. to, in or at a higher position or value
urge - v. to advise strongly; to make a great effort to get someone to do something
urgent - ad. needing an immediate decision or action
us - pro. the form of the word "we" used after a preposition ("He said he would
write to us.") or used as an object of a verb ("They saw us yesterday.")
use - v. to employ for a purpose; to put into action
usual - ad. as is normal or common; as is most often done, seen or heard
V
valley - n. a long area of land between higher areas of land
value - n. the quality of being useful, important or desired; the amount of money
that could be received if something is sold
vegetable - n. a plant grown for food
vehicle - n. anything on or in which a person or thing can travel or be transported,
especially anything on wheels; a car or truck
version - n. the form of something with different details than earlier or later forms
very - ad. extremely ("He was very late.")
veto - v. to reject or refuse to approve
vicious - ad. bad; dangerous; showing harm or hate
victim - n. someone or something that is injured, killed or made to suffer; someone
who is tricked
victory - n. a success in a fight or competition
village - n. a very small town
violate - v. to fail to obey or honor; to break (an agreement)
violence - n. the use of force to cause injury, death or damage
visit - v. to go to or come to a place for a short time for friendly or business reasons
voice - n. the sound made by creatures, especially humans, for speaking
volcano - n. a hill or mountain around a hole in the earth's surface that can explode,
sending hot, melted rock and ash into the air
vote - v. to choose a candidate in an election; n. a choice or decision expressed by
the voice, by hand or by writing
W
wages - n. money received for work done
wait - v. to delay acting; to postpone
walk - v. to move by putting one foot in front of the other
wall - n. the side of a room or building formed by wood, stone or other material; a
structure sometimes used to separate areas of land
want - v. to desire; to wish for; to need
war - n. fighting between nations, or groups in a nation, using weapons
warm - ad. almost hot; having or feeling some heat
warn - v. to tell of possible danger; to advise or inform about something bad that
may happen
wash - v. to make clean, usually with water
waste - v. to spend or use without need or care; to make bad use of; n. a spending of
money, time or effort with no value gained or returned; something thrown away as
having no value; the liquid and solid substances that result from body processes and
are passed out of the body
watch - v. to look at; to observe closely; to look and wait for
water - n. the liquid that falls from the sky as rain or is found in lakes, rivers and
oceans
wave - v. to move or cause to move one way and the other, as a flag in the wind; to
signal by moving the hand one way and the other; n. a large mass of water that
forms and moves on the surface of a lake or ocean
way - n. a path on land or sea or in the air; how something is done; method
we - pro. two or more people, including the speaker or writer ("He and I will go
together, and we will return together.")
weak - ad. having little power; easily broken, damaged or destroyed; opposite
strong
wealth - n. a large amount of possessions, money or other things of value
weapon - n. anything used to cause injury or to kill during an attack, fight or war
wear - v. to have on the body, as clothes
weather - n. the condition of the atmosphere resulting from sun, wind, rain, heat or
cold
week - n. a period of time equal to seven days
weigh - v. to measure how heavy someone or something is
welcome - v. to express happiness or pleasure when someone arrives or something
develops
well - ad. in a way that is good or pleasing; in good health; n. a hole in the ground
where water, gas or oil can be found
west - n. the direction in which the sun goes down
wet - ad. covered with water or other liquid; not dry
what - pro. used to ask about something or to ask for information about something
("What is this?"); ad. which or which kind ("He wants to know what you would like
to drink.")
wheat - n. a grain used to make bread; the plant that produces the grain
wheel - n. a round structure that turns around a center
when - ad. at what time; at any time ("When will she come home?"); conj. during or
at the time ("I studied hard when I was in school.")
where - ad., conj. at, to or in what place ("Where is his house?" "The house where
he lives is in the old part of the city.")
which - pro. used to ask about what one or what ones of a group of things or people
("Which program do you like best?" "Which students will take the test?")
while - n. a space of time ("Please come to my house for a while."); conj. at or
during the same time ("It may not be a good idea to eat while you are running.")
white - ad. having the color like that of milk or snow
who - pro. what or which person or persons that ("Who wants to go?"); the person
or persons ("They are the ones who want to go.")
whole - ad. the complete amount; all together; not divided; not cut into pieces
why - ad. for what cause or reason ("Why did she do it?"); conj. the reason for
which ("I do not know why she did it.")
wide - ad. having a great distance from one side to the other; not limited
wife - n. a woman who is married
wild - ad. living and growing in natural conditions and not organized or supervised
by humans; angry; uncontrolled
will - v. a word used with action words to show future action ("They will hold talks
tomorrow.")
willing - ad. being ready or having a desire to ("They are willing to talk about the
problem.")
win - v. to gain a victory; to defeat another or others in a competition, election or
battle
wind - n. a strong movement of air
window - n. an opening in a wall to let in light and air, usually filled with glass
winter - n. the coldest time of year, between autumn and spring
wire - n. a long, thin piece of metal used to hang objects or to carry electricity or
electronic communications from one place to another
wise - ad. having much knowledge and understanding; able to use knowledge and
understanding to make good or correct decisions
wish - v. to want; to express a desire for
with - prep. along or by the side of; together; using ("He fixed it with a tool.");
having ("the house with the red door")
withdraw - v. to take or move out, away or back; to remove
without - prep. with no; not having or using; free from; not doing
woman - n. an adult female human
wonder - v. to ask oneself; to question ("She wonders if it is true."); n. a feeling of
surprise
wonderful - ad. causing wonder; especially good
wood - n. the solid material of which trees are made
word - n. one or more connected sounds that form a single part of a language
work - v. to use physical or mental effort to make or do something; n. the effort
used to make or to do something; that which needs effort; the job one does to earn
money
world - n. the earth; the people who live on the earth
worry - v. to be concerned; to continue thinking that something, possibly bad, can
happen
worse - ad. more bad than
worth - n. value measured in money
wound - v. to injure; to hurt; to cause physical damage to a person or animal; n. an
injury to the body of a human or animal in which the skin is usually cut or broken
wreck - v. to damage greatly; to destroy; n. anything that has been badly damaged
or broken
wreckage - n. what remains of something severely damaged or destroyed
write - v. to use an instrument to make words appear on a surface, such as paper
wrong - ad. not correct; bad; not legal; opposite right
Y
year - n. a period of time equal to twelve months
yellow - ad. having the color like that of gold or the sun
yes - ad. used to express agreement or to permit
yesterday - n. the day before today
yet - ad. at some time before now ("Have they arrived yet?"); now; at this time ("I
cannot tell you about it yet."); conj. however ("The sun was shining, yet it was
cold.")
you - pro. the person or persons being spoken to
young - ad. in the early years of life; not old
Z
zero - n. the number meaning none or nothing
zoo - n. a place where animals are kept for the public to look at and study
COMMON PREFIXES
dis - not (dishonest, disobey)
pro - for, supporting (pro-labor, pro-government)
re - to do again (reorganize, reunite)
self - used to show that the person or group acting is the one affected by the action,
or to show that the action is done only by its own effort or power (self-declared,
self-appointed)
un - not (unusual, unhappy)
COMMON EXPRESSIONS
carry out - to do; to put into effect ("Please carry out the plan.")
pass a bill - approve ("Congress is expected to pass a bill to cut taxes.")
take steps - to start to do something ("The government will take steps to halt
inflation.")
WORDS USED IN VOA SPECIAL ENGLISH
SCIENCE PROGRAMS
atom - a very small part of all things; the smallest part of an element that can join
with parts of other elements
bacteria - living things that are one cell and can be seen only through a microscope;
some cause disease
cell - a small mass of living material that is part of all plants and animals
chromosome - a line of genes; most human cells contain 46 chromosomes
compound - a substance containing two or more elements
dense - close together; thick
electron - a small part of an atom that has an electrical force
element - one of more than 100 substances known to science that cannot be
separated into other substances
enzyme - a special kind of protein; it produces changes in other substances without
being changed itself
fetus - unborn young
fission - a splitting; in atomic fission, the nucleus of an atom is split to produce
nuclear energy
fusion - a joining together; in atomic fusion, atomic particles are joined together to
produce nuclear energy
genes - parts of cells that control the growth and development of living things;
genes from the mother and father are passed to the child; genes contain nucleic
acid
genetic engineering - the science of changing the genes of a living organism
gravity - the force that pulls things toward the center of the earth
image - a reproduction of the appearance of a person or thing
laser - an instrument that makes a thin, powerful light
magnet - a piece of iron or other material that has a pulling force; this pulling force
is called magnetism
molecule - the smallest amount of a chemical substance that can exist
nerve - a thin piece of tissue that sends information through the body to and from
the brain
nucleus - the center part of an atom or cell
nucleic acid - a molecule that holds the genetic information necessary for life; there
are two kinds of nucleic acid: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic
acid)
nutrient - a food or substance that makes plants, humans or animals grow
organ - a part of the body that has a special purpose, such as the heart or brain
organism - a living thing, often so small it can be seen only through a microscope
particle - a very small piece of matter
proteins - substances responsible for the growth of tissue and for fixing damaged
tissue
robot - a machine that moves and performs tasks
tissue - living material; a group of cells that are similar in appearance and do the
same thing
virus - a kind of organism that causes disease
x-rays - a kind of radiation that can pass through most solid materials, often used in
medicine
ORGANS OF THE BODY
heart - pumps blood through the body
intestines - tubes through which food passes after it is broken down in the stomach;
part of the intestines also remove solid wastes from the body
kidney - cleans liquid wastes from the body
liver - makes some proteins and enzymes; removes poisons from the blood
lung - takes in and expels air from the body
prostate - a part of the male reproductive system
stomach - breaks down food for the body to use
uterus - a part of the female reproductive system where a fetus develops
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